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ADDRESSES AND PAPERS 



BY 

THE MEMBERS OF THE 
INSTRUCTING STAFF OF 
THE NEW YORK STATE 
VETERINARY COI.EEGE 

For the YkaRvS i 896-1 898 




"THERK IS HKRKBY KSTABWSHKD 
A STATE VETERINARY COI.I.EGE 
AT CORNEI^I. university" 

Laws of New York, i8g4, p. ^oj 



ITHACA, NEW YORK 

1808 



r\ 






2?<i09 




PREFATORY NOTE 



This collection of lifty-eight papers and addresses, representing nearly 
five hundred pages of matter, has been selected from the published 
work of tlie various members of the instructing staff of the New York 
State Veterinary College during the two years of its existence. The 
work is now presented to the members of the Veterinary and Medical 
professions, to scientific men, stock raisers, and indeed to all who are 
interested in the prosperity of our great commonwealth, and the advance- 
ment of science. 

The papers show something of the variety of the intellectual work 
undertaken by the teachers both within and outside the direct line of 
their college duties. This will serve to explain the extremely varied and 
heterogeneous character of the contents, ranging as they do through the 
following general subjects : The value of certain forms of scientific study 
as a means of mental training ; physiology and other scientific courses 
in common schools and academies ; results of scientific investigations in 
natural history ; laboratory methods which systematize, simplify and 
render more effective scientific research ; the results of laboratory work 
in their bearing on the economic management of our live stock industry 
and the sanitary protection of the human race ; advances and improve- 
ments in medical and surgical methods ; the feasibility and importance 
of the extinction of the microbes of certain plagues now prevalent on 
this continent, and the best means of maintaining and advancing the 
standard of veterinary education and practice in the State and Nation. 
Our last announcement is placed at the end of the volume and shows, in 
outline, the preliminary and professional education which seems to us 
absolutely essential. 

While some of the monographs are complete in themselves, others 
may be said to be reports of progress in a given line of investigation, for 
the full elucidation of which a much longer time and a greater outlay 
are necessary. This pertains especially to such subjects as the conta- 
gious diseases of swine, which cost the State of New York hundreds of 
thousands of dollars per annum ; and the contagious abortion of cows 
which entails even greater loss. These and other lines of inquiry of 
great economic value will be kept constantly in view and followed up as 
our means and opportunity permit. We hope in future years to report 
even more valuable results as we reach final and demonstrable conclusions. 

In addition to the papers herein printed, translations and much 
other work have appeared ; as a part of this work may be mentioned the 
following books : 

Text Book of Veterinary Medicine, Vol. I. James Law. 

Practical Exercises in Comparative Physiology and Urine Analysis. 
Pierre a. Fish. 

Laboratory Direction for Beginners in Bacteriology. Veranus A. 
Moore. 

The Microscope and Microscopical Methods, 6th Edition. Simon 
H. Gage. 

JAMES LAW, Director. 

December 5, 1898. 



TABLE OF CONTENTS 



As will be seen the papers of each member of the Instructini,^ Staff 
are together, and the groups or blocks of papers are in the order of the 
names given in the Announcement of the College at the end of this volume. 

In each case the original place of publication is indicated. 



JAMI-:S LAW, F.R.C.V.vS., Professor of Principles and Practice of Vet- 
erinary Medicine, Veterinary Safiitary Science, and Parasitism. 

Address at the Inauguration of the New York State Veterinar\- College, 
vSeptember 24, 1896. 
Reprinted from the Veterinary Magazine, Sept. 1896. Pp. 548-561. 

IIow to Prepare Articles for Shipment to the Pathological Laboratory. 

American Veterinary Review, November, 1897. Pp. 547-552. 
Rei)()rt of Minimum Standard of Pjitrance Examinations. 

Proceedings I'nited vStates Veterinary Medical Association, 
1897. Pp. 226-235. 

Infectious Diseases Common to Man and Animals. 

A System of Practical Medicine by American Authors, 
Vol. iii, 189S. Pp. 741-784. 

Glanders, Pp. 741-752. 

Anthrax, Pp. 753-762. 

Rabies, Pp. 763-773- 

Actinomycosis, Pp. 775-784. 

Increased Requirements for the vStudy of \'eterinarv ^Medicine in New 
York. Answer to Article in Turf, Field and Farm, April 22, 1S98. 
P. 517, and April 29tli, p. 552. 

Dangers to Mankind from the Consuni])tion of the Flesh and INIilk of 
Tuberculous Animals. 

Proceedings United States Veterinarv Medical Association, 
1898. Pp. 80-96. 

The Cooperation of the Various Examining Boards and the Desirabilitv 
of Establishing an Interstate Examining Board, the Certificate o'f 
Which would be Accepted by the Boards of all States. 

Proceedings United States Veterinary Medical Association. 
1898. Pp. 199-206. 

Tuberculosis in Animals and its Control. 

Bull. No. 150 of the Agricultural Experiment Station, Cornell 
University, 1898. 

Extermination of Texas Fever. 

Paper in Country Gentleman, 189S. 

Contagious Abortion in Cows. 

Report of the State Connnissioner of Agriculture for 189S. 



CONTENTS 5 

WALTER L. WILLIAMS, D.V.S., Professor of Principles and Practice 
of Veterinary Surgery, Obstetrics, Zooteclmy, and Jurisprudence. 

Physiological Variations. 

Proc. U. S. Vet. Med. Ass'n, 1896, p. 192 

Artesia of Right Posterior Naris in a Marp. 

Jour. Conip. Med. and V. A., May, 1897. Vol. xviii, p. 274 

Azoturia and Atrophy of the Great Dorsal Muscles as a Result of Casting 
Am. Vet. Review, June, 1897. Vol. xxi, p. 157 

The Spaying of Mares. 

Jour. Comp. Med. and V. A., June, 1897, p. 355 

Involuntary Twitching of the Head relieved by Trifacial Neurotomy 
Jour. Comp. Med. and V. A,, July, 1897, Vol. xviii, p. 426 

Traumatic Pericarditis in a Cow. 

Jour. Comp. Med. and V. A., July, 1897. Vol. xviii, p. 451 

Luxation of the Metacarpo-phalangeal Articulation in a Horse. 

Jour. Comp. Med. and V. A., July, 1897. Vol. xviii, p. 452 

Three Consecutive Recoveries from Glanders. 

Am. Vet. Rev., July, 1897. Vol. xxi, p. 230 

Infectious Abortion of Mares. 

Am. Vet. Rev., August, 1897. Vol. xxi, p. 303 

The Parasitic Ictero-Hematuria of Sheep. 

Am. Vet. Rev., September, 1897. Vol. xxi, p. 377 

Extreme Luxation of the Patellae of a Foal. Illustrated. 

Am. Vet. Rev., October, 1897. Vol. xxi, p. 444 

Inhalation Pneumonia. (Joint article. and P. A. FISH.) 

Proc. U. S. Vet. Med. Ass'n. 1897, p. 167. 

Am. Vet. Rev., Dec, 1897. Vol. xxi, p. 609. 

Jour. Comp. Med. and V. A., Oct., 1897. Vol. xviii, p. 619. 

Vet. Jour. (Lond.) Feb., 1898. Vol. xlvi, p. 143. 

The Air Sac Mite of the Fowl. Illustrated. 

Am. Vet. Rev., April, 1898, Vol. xxii, p. 8. 

Caudal Myectomy vs. Clitoridectomy. 

Am. Vet. Rev., May, 1898, Vol. xxii, p. 91. 
Vet. Jour. (Lond.) July, 1898. Vol. xlvii, p. 19. 

Interesting Cases from the Surgical and Obstetric Clinic, N. Y. State Vet- 
erinary College. 

Am. Vet. Rev., June, 1898. Vol. xxii, p. 178. 



PIERRE AUGUSTINE FISH, D.Sc, D.V.S., Assistant Professor of 
Comparative Physiology aud Pharmacology. 

Zoophily versus Homophily. 

Transactions of the American Microscopical Society. 1S96. 
Vol. xviii. Pp. 142-145. 



cox TEXTS 



Notes oil 'l\rhni(nu'. 

Trans. Aiiitr. Micros. Socicl}-. 1.S96, \\;1. xviii. Pp. 2S7-290. 

Neutral Red in Histology and Bactericjlos^y. 

Anierrcau Veterinary Review. 1896. Vol. ,xx. Pjx 626-629. 

The Brain of the Fur Seal, Callorhinus ursinus ; with a comparative de- 
.scri])tion of those of Zalophus californianus, Phoca vitulina, Ursiis 
aniericanus and Monachus tropicalis. 

Journal of Comparative Neurology. 1898. Vol. viii. 
Pp. 57-9'- 4 plates. 

The Nerve Cell as a Unit. 

Journal of Comparative Neurology 1898. Vol. viii. 
Pj). 99-1 10. 7 text figures. 



VP:R.\NrS ALVA MOORP:, R.S., M.D., Professor of Coui pa rati:r Path- 
ology and Bacteriology, and of Meat Inspection. 



The Influence of Animal Experimentation upon .\griculture. 

Proceedings of the Society for the Promotion of Agricultural 
Science, 1896. Pp. 22-34. 

The Nature and Prevention of Infectious Entero-hepatitis in Turkeys. 

Cultivator and Country Gentleman, March 25, 1897. 

The Ilemospast. A new and convenient Instrument for Drawing Blood 
for Microscopic Examination. Illustrated. 

Transactions of the American iMicroscopical Societv, 1897. 
Pp. 186-188. 

Powdered Soaj) as a Cause of Death among Swill-fed Hogs. 

Bulletin No. 141. Cornell University Agric. ICx])erinient 
vStation, 1897. Pp. 409-418. 

Blood Serum in the Prevention and Treatment of Infectious Swine Dis- 
eases with a report of an Experiment with Swine-plague Antitoxin. 
Proceedings of the Society for the Promotion of Agricultural 
Science, 1897. Pp. 26-34. 

Remarks on the Nature and the Differentiation of the Infectious Swine 
Diseases in the United States. 

American Veterinary Review, Vol. xxi, (1898), ])p. 813-829. 

Su])purative Cellulitis in the Limbs of Cattle due to Streptococcus hifec- 
tion. Illustrated. 

American \'eterinary Review, \'ol. xxii (189S), pp. 169-178. 

Thermo-regulated Waterbaths for the Bacteriological Laboratory. Illu.s- 
trated. 

Journal of Applied Microscoi)y. 1898. P. 108. 



CONTENTS y 

A Report Concerning the Nature of Infectious Swine Diseases in the State 
of New York, with Practical Suggestions for their Prevention 
and Treatment. Illustrated. 

Report of the Commissioner of Agriculture of New York 
vState. 1897. Pp. 53. 

Remarks on Anthrax and Rabies with special Reference to Outbreaks 
recently Investigated. Illustrated. Ibid. Pp. 18. 



SIMON HENRY GAGE, B.S., Professor of Microscopy, Hisio/ojry and 
Embryology. 

Plnsiology in the Schools. 

Science, Vol. iv, N. S., July 10, 1896. Pp. 29-33. 
Regents' Bulletin, No. 36, Sept., 1896. Pp. 67-71. 

Zoology as a Factor in Mental Culture. 

Science, Vol. iv, N. S., August, 1896. Pp. 207-213. 
Addresses and Proceedings of the National Educational Association, 
35th annual meeting, Buffalo, N. Y. , July, 1896. Pp. 960-967. 

Courses in Histology and Methods of Conducting them. 

Proceedings of the American Microscopical Societ}^ Vol. xviii, 
August, 1896. Pp. 299-310. 

The Pvirpose of the New York State Science Teachers' Association and 
the Work it hopes to Accomplish. Presidential address before the 
Association, December 29, 1896. 

Science, Vol. v, N. S., March, 1897. Pp. 458-460. 

Notes on the Isolation of Tissue-Elements. 

Proceedings of the American Microscopical Society, 
Vol. xix, August, 1897. Pp. 1 79-181. 

Platinum Chlorid for Demonstrating the Fibrils of Striated Muscle. 

Journal of Applied Microscopy, Vol. i, Jan., 1898. Pp. 3-4. 

.The Ivife History of the Toad. 

Teacher's Leaflet, No. 9, for use in the Public Schools. Prepared 
by the College of Agriculture, Cornell University, I. P. Roberts, 
Director. Issued under Chapter 67, Laws of New York, 1898. 

April 4, 1898. Pp. 79-98. 

Some Apparatus to Facilitate the Work of the Histological and Embryo - 
logical Laboratory. 
Journal of Applied Microscopy, Vol. i, July, 1898. Pp. 124-131. 



GRANT SHF:rMAN HOPKINS, V>.^c., Assistant Professor of Veterin- 
ary Anatomy and Anatomical Methods. 

Some Lungless Salamanders. Illu.strated. 

American Naturalist, Vol xxx, October, 1896. Pp. 829-833. 



8 COXTENTS 

BKXJA:\IIN I'RIvKMAN KIXCxSHrRV, A.B.. Ph.D.. luslnictov in Mi- 
iroscopw Iiistolo_s;y and Enibryology. 

The Slnicture and Morphology of the Oblongata in Fishes. 

The Journal of Comparative Neurology. \o\ vii, No. i . 
April, 1S97. Pp. 1-36. 

The Knce])halic Kvaginations in Ganoids. 

The Journal of Comparative Neurology. \(A. vii, No. i. 
April, 1S97. Pp. 37-44. 

The Demonstration of Karyokinesis, 

Journal of Applied ]Microsco])y. Vol. i. No. 5. 
May, 189S. Pp. 80 -S3. 



RAYMOND CLINTON RP:RD, Pii.B., Inslnidorin Comparative Path- 
o/oiiy and Ihulcriology. 

Prejiaration of Culture Media with Special Reference to Sterilization. 
American Monthly Microscopical Journal, Vol. xviii. No. 5, 
May^ 1897. Pp. 149- •54- 

Dahlia as a vStain for Bacteria in Sections cut by the Collodion Method. 
Transactions of the American I\Iicrosco])ical Society. \'ol. 
xix, 1897. Pp. 182-185. 



RAY JONKS vSTANCLIFT, D.V.M., Demonstrator of Anatomy. 

Ase])tic Castration of Male Animals. 

American Veterinary Review, Vol. xxii, July, 1898. Pp. 249-272. 



JAMES LAW, r.R.C.V.S., 

Professor of Principles and Pj^actice of Veterinary Medicine, 
Veterinary Sanitary Scie7ice, and Parasitism. 



ARTICLES. 



t^Address at the Inauguration of the New York State Veterinary College, 
September 24, 189&. 
Reprinted from the Veterinary Magazine, Sept. 1896. Pp. 548-561. 

How to Prepare Articles for Shipment to the Pathological Ivaboratory. 
x\merican Veterinary Review, November, 1897. Pp. 547-552. 

Report of Minimum Standard of Entrance Examinations. 

Proceedings United States Veterinary Medical Association, 
1897. Pp. 226-235. 

Infectious Diseases Common to Man and Animals. 

A System of Practical Medicine bv American Authors, 
Vol. iii, 1898. Pp. 741-784. 

Glanders, Pp. 741-752. 

Anthrax, Pp. 753-762. 

Rabies, Pp. 763-773. 

Actinomycosis, Pp. 775-784. 

Increased Requirements for the Study of Veterinary Medicine in New 
York. Answer to Article in Turf, Field and Farm, April 22, 1898. 
P. 517, and April 29th, p. 552. 

Dangers to Mankind from the Consumption of the Plesh and Milk of 
Tuberculous Animals. 

Proceedings United States Veterinary Medical Association, 
1898. Pp. 80-96. 

The Cooperation of the Various Examining Boards and the Desirability 
of Establishing an Interstate Examining Board, the Certificate of 
Which would be Accepted by the Boards of all States. 

Proceedings United States Veterinary Medical Association. 
1898. Pp. 199-206. 

Tuberculosis in Animals and its Control. 

Bull. No. 150 of the Agricultural Experiment Station, Cornell 
University, 1898. 

Extermination of Texas Fever. 

Paper in Country Gentleman, 1898. 

Contagious x\bortion in Cows, 

Report of the State Commissioner of Agriculture for 1898. 



ADDRESS 

AT THE 

INAUGURATION OF THE NEW YORK STATE 
VETERINARY COLLEGE, 

SEPTEMBER 24, 1896. 



By Professor James Law. 



[Reprinted iroiu The Veterinary Magazine, September, 1896.] 

It seems desirable to say a few words to you collectively in 
view of the inauguration of a new enterprise in America — a 
State A'eterinary College. As an English-speaking people we 
have been especially influenced by English example in shaping 
many of our institutions, and in none more so than in those to 
which veterinary education has been committed. It has been a 
crowning glory of the Anglo-Saxon races that they have sus- 
pected and frowned upon a too paternal government. In Europe 
and America, in South Africa. Australia and New Zealand, a 
prominent aim has been to restrict the functions of government 
to the protection of the citizen in his personal rights of property 
and conscience, in his lawful business enterprises, and his pur- 
suit of pleasure. Education, it is true, came in for a constantly 
increasing share of national control and support, but this was 
for long mainly along classic lines, and was a legacy which 
came down to us from the early monastic and ecclesiastical 
schools. For purely secular education money was slowly and 
grudgingly allowed, with a wholesome dread of the evils to be 
apprehended from class legislation. That instinct of even- 
handed justice which demanded for the citizen a trial by a jury 
of his peers, naturally recoiled from any proposition which 
looked like an appropriation of public money for the creation or 
benefit of any special class or guild. It is only in recent years 
that the manifest value to the nation, in its competition with 
other nations, of the highest knowledge and skill in science and 
arts, has led to the founding and support of technical and pro- 
fessional schools of all kinds, to keep the country in the fore- 
front of the race of civilization and progress. 



As the Anglo-vSaxon peoples have gradually awakened to the 
need of government provision for technical education, those 
branches which seemed to be of the greatest material value were 
naturally the first and most liberally dealt with, while those in 
which the prizes were smaller or the triumphs less striking, 
and competition less close, were still left to shift for them- 
selves. 

In Great Britain there has never been a State A^eterinary 
College, and the four existing schools have been all founded by 
private enterprise and conducted independently of State grants. 

In America, as in England, the veterinary schools have been 
private ventures, and consequently largely dominated by the 
financial results. The founders of such schools were met at the 
threshold by the imperative questions: 

Will the venture pay ? 

Can we secure fees enough to sustain it ? 

Will the name of the college bring us greater and more re- 
munerative practice ? 

Will the prospective fees, fame and practice warrant the in- 
vestment ? 

The answer is necessarily dominated by the question of 
money, and the temptation is great to subordinate the educa- 
tional considerations. The pressure is heavy: i. To shorten 
the curriculum; 2. To admit ill-prepared candidates; 3. To 
graduate large numbers, irrespective of fitness; 4. To further 
abridge the already short course, and as a final degradation; 5. 
To sell diplomas. 

To this last, lowest depth of sordidness more than one vet- 
erinary college in America has sunk. But short of this, even 
the surviving and honorable colleges have been one and all pre- 
vented from achieving the status which the nature of the subject 
demanded. The preliminary education and the trained mind 
which are requisite to the successful pursuit of the science, have 
not been required for matriculation, and the course has been 
abridged to such an extent that even a trained mind cannot 
successfully cover the required ground in the time allowed him. 
Meanwhile the field of veterinary science has been rapidly en- 
larging, deepening, w^idening and becoming more thoroughly 
cultivated, so that the insufficiency of the untrained student 
and his short curricuhuu have become more and more marked 
;^ear by year. 



The contrast with the schools of veterinary medicine on the 
continent of Europe will emphasize this statement. In entering 
a continental veterinary school the student must show that he 
has graduated from a real skiile, gymnasium or college, and he 
must pursue a veterinary course of from three years and a half 
to five years, of nine or ten months each, ere he can hope to 
secure a degree. Add to this that the great advances in medi- 
cine have been such that the great majority of the students 
have to studj^ one additional year ere they can secure the cov- 
eted diploma, and we can appreciate the hopeless inadequacy 
of a course of two or even of three sessions of five or six months 
each, which has not been preceded by a mental training in high 
school or college. 

These continental veterinary colleges would have been no 
more thorough than the English or American had they been 
dependent on private enterprise. But there is no veterinary 
college on the continent of Europe today that is not a ward of 
the government. Each one has been founded and is sustained 
by the commonwealth just as are the army, the navy, the ex- 
periment farms, etc. This paternalism is founded on a long 
experience of their value, of which I may be permitted to give 
a single example. 

The disease, rinderpest, which confines its ravages to rumi- 
nants, and, as its name indicates, almost entirely to cattle, 
formerly spread over most of Europe at frequent intervals, kill- 
ing twenty to ninety-five per cent, of the bovine race at a single 
invasion. Paulet tells us that in Western Europe in three 
years (1711-14) it cutoff 1,500,000 head of cattle, and Faust 
says that in the whole of Europe in four general invasions 
dating from 171 1, it destroyed no less than 200,000,000 head. 
At $20 per head this reaches the astounding sum of $4,000,- 
000,000. So late as 1844, according to Raynal, it destroyed 
1,000,000 head in Southern Russia alone. 

Thanks to the veterinary profession of Europe, this disease 
can never again attain such boundless sway, and though still 
extended at intervals in the course of belligerent armies, or in 
the channels of trade, it is always met with intelligent meas- 
ures of control and speedily suppressed. 

This is but one of the deadly plagues of the Old World, the 
ruinous extensions of which led, in 1762, to the establishing 
of the first European veterinary school at Eyons, France, under 



the presidency of Bourgelat. This was followed, a year later, 
by a second school at Charenton, near Paris, and still later by 
a third at Toulouse. These were succeeded by a score of others 
in the different countries of the continent, all at the national 
charge and under government control. They are justly looked 
upon as economic investments, not only for the restriction and 
extinction of the plagues, formerly so rife and fatal, but also 
for the conserving of the lives and efficiency of the horses of 
the cavalry and artillery; for the protection and fostering of the 
various animal industries, and indirectl}', though no less cer- 
tainly, for the paramount preservation of the fertility of the soil. 

The results have abundantly vindicated the wisdom of the 
investment: 

The protected herds have furnished a cheap and abundant 
food for the growing populations. 

The increasing demand for cattle food, and the multiplying 
of the natural sources of rich manure, have combined to enrich 
the fields and improve the crops. 

The improved agriculture and abundance of food products, 
have fostered ever}^ branch of manufacture and trade and con- 
tributed to a substantial prosperity. 

The contrast in countries where veterinary science has been 
ignored is quite instructive. In South Africa, apart from the 
mining interests, grazing has long been the main source of 
wealth. Into this country lung plague was imported in infected 
Dutch cattle in 1854, and extending on the unfenced grazing 
tracts, under a semi-torrid climate, proved so disastrous that, ac- 
cording to Lindlc}', whole herds of 100 or 200 head would perish 
without a single exception. At that time the Matabele chief 
occupying land protected on two sides by inaccessible cliffs, 
successfully defended his passes against the diseased cattle and 
saved the wealth of his people. 

Now, recently, a cargo of cattle from infected Hindostan has 
implanted the still more redoubtable rinderpest in South Africa, 
and in the disturbed condition of the countr}^ this has pene- 
trated even into Matabeleland and bids fair to destroy the 
cattle industry of South Africa. 

Again, the lung plague, imported into Australia in 1859, in 
a diseased English cow, was allowed to spread over the whole 
island continent, and permanentl}^ blighted the cattle industry 
in one of the finest pasture lands on earth. 



5 

In England this same lung plague in the forty years succeed- 
ing 1842, cost the nation $500,000,000. 

In the United States the same plague prevailed in our 
eastern seaboard States for over forty years, causing losses that 
have never been estimated, and incidentally leading to an 
embargo on American cattle in England, which entailed a loss 
of ten dollars a head on an average to the exporter. This 
alone amounted to $2,000,000 per annum. It was only when 
the plague reached the centre of our cattle traffic (Chicago), 
and bade fair to invade the whole country, including the 
unfenced Territories, and to repeat in America the experience 
of South Africa and Australia, that the national and State 
o^overnments were roused from their lethargy, and we were 
empowered to take efficient measures for its extinction. Hap- 
pily now it has noplace on this continent, and with reasonable 
precautions can never make a new invasion. 

The same line of thought and similar historic facts could be 
followed and adduced as to the other animal plagues, including 
the affections caused by the larger animal parasites; as to 
enzootic diseases caused by faulty conditions of the environ- 
ment ; as to constitutional diseases, due to errors in breeding, 
diet and regimen, and as to local diseases, many of which are 
due to improper treatment. 

In America as in Europe we can successfully maintain that 
the benefits already drawn from the veterinary profession liave 
abundantly vindicated its claim to State support. But the 
prospective value of the work of veterinary investigation and 
education far exceeds all that thej^ accomplished for the nation 
in the past. Among our horses glanders yearly claims a large 
and valuable sacrifice to its devouring poison. Among cattle, 
anthrax, tuberculosis, and Southern cattle fever cause wide- 
spread though needless destruction. Among sheep, flocks are 
decimated everywhere by remorseless parasites, internal and 
external. Among swine the preventable infectious fevers cost 
the nation on a low estimate 20,000,000 per annum. Among 
fowls the prevalent contagious affections are no less disastrous. 

In the matter of numbers, the wealth at stake in the live- 
stock of America is as great as that of European nations, and 
to the reasoning mind, is no less exacting of measures for its 
protection. In four of the most important countries of Western 
Europe, the aggregate of the farm mammals is considerably 



6 

kss than that of the United States. Yet these four countries 
of Western Europe (France, Belgium, Holland and Germany) 
have eleven veterinary schools maintained and fostered at State 
expense. Surely our own Empire State with its 9,500,000 of 
farm mammals, with its large emporia at Buffalo, Albany and 
New York, for the reception and diffusion of live-stock from 
other States, and its record of a recent riddance from a cattle 
plague, which for over forty years had hung like a pall on the 
cattle industry of the State, and exacted a tax of $2,000,000 or 
more per annum from home herds and exports, is fully justified 
in establishing a State Veterinary College. 

But if the more economic advantage w^ould demand such a 
step, how much more would the protection of human health 
and life ? How much of the physical disease and death of 
man is due to direct transmission from corresponding diseases 
in our domestic animals, is only now beginning to be realized. 

Among parasites some of the most deadl}' of man's tormen- 
tors came directl}' from our live-stock. Trichina, echinococcus, 
the beef and pork tapeworms, strongylus gigas, and actino- 
mycosis may be mentioned in this connection. 

Among microbian diseases the list is no less redoubtable. 
Glanders, farcy, rabies, tetanus, milk sickness, tuberculosis, 
anthrax, malignant edema, septicemia, erysipelas, gangrene 
and infectious osteitis, may be adduced as examples. 

The more intimately we acquaint ourselves with the subject 
of communicable or contagious disease, the more deeply are we 
impressed with the fact that there is the closest relationship 
and interdependence between these affections as they appear in 
man and animals. Indeed, in many cases, as in the echino- 
coccus, the beef and pork tapeworms and even the trichina, the 
successive appearance of man and animal as the host of the 
parasite, at the different stages of its development, is a condi- 
tion of its propagation. So far as we know, it is impossible for 
the echinococcus or of the beef tenia, to live in the same host 
or in a host of the same genus in both its larval and mature 
condition. Man harbors the larva and the dog the tenia, or 
the calf entertains the larva and his master the tenia. 

In the case of contagious affections due to microbes, the 
same alternation from man to beast, and from beast to man, is 
not so essential to their maintenance, and yet the intimac}- of 
the relation between the domesticated animal and the civilized 



man is so close that many such diseases are largely propagated 
in this way. In this sense glanders and anthrax stand out as 
largely industrial diseases. The first appears in persons having 
close relations to horses or to horse products — grooms, coach- 
men, stablemen, cowboys, soldiers, farmers, horsedealers, 
knackers, veterinarians, surgeons, tanners, gardeners — whose 
daily avocations lay them specially open to direct infection. 
The second is a disease of farmers, cattlemen, shepherds, 
butchers, tanners, hair and wool- workers. 

But neither disease is by any means restricted to these classes. 
These suifer more numerously, but others suffer in a limited 
degree, through less direct channels of contagion. And the 
danger of such irregular transmission is in exact ratio with the 
number of diseased animals that are allowed to survive in a 
district. A single glandered animal is a source of no great 
danger. He may be even used on public highways, but his 
contact with or proximity to man is necessarily somewhat re- 
stricted and the human risk is correspondingly small. But let 
him have free scope to infect others, and these to infect others 
in turn, until one can hardly enter a street without meeting an 
infected animal and having him snort his deadly, nasal dis- 
charge over his person, and into one's nose, eyes and lips, and 
the danger at once becomes imminent. Let glanders be neglected 
in a street-car-stable until its victims are counted by the score, 
or on a horse ranch until the diseased mount up into the 
hundreds, and the danger, first to the caretakers, and second 
to the general public, is greatly enhanced, and human victims 
of this most loathsome and deadly disease become comparatively 
common. Let a grocer, baker, milkman, or other vendor of 
human food keep a glandered horse and use it in his delivery 
wagon, and the hands of the driver alternately coming in 
contact with the virulent discharges and the articles of food 
threaten to become a very direct cause of infection to his un- 
suspecting customers. 

A single anthrax animal would also be primarily a source of 
apparently little danger, but when that diseased subject is 
allowed to contaminate other animals and even susceptible soil, 
which can retain and propagate the bacillus, the danger to 
both man and beast is enormously increased. Brought up 
from the graves, by the rising of the soil-water in wet seasons, 
or by the intervention of the earthworm or the burrowing 



8 

rodent, then dried up and l)lo\vn by the winds upon the vege- 
tation : drawn up from wells in the drinking water ; borne along 
by streams and rivers to new localities ; carried on the feet, and 
even in the stomachs of vermin, birds and insects, and implanted 
in the skin by their mandibles and biting apparatus, the bacillus 
finds man}' channels of conveyance and numerous modes of 
infection. Delivered from the butcher's stall into our kitchens, 
the meat of an anthrax animal is liable to contaminate other 
food, through knives, forks, plates and other articles, and even 
to cause direct infection through the resistance of the spore to 
the heat of cooking. 

Of late years the general public has been more exercised 
over tuberculosis than any other complaint which is common 
to man and beast. There is doubtless good reason for this. 
This white plague of the 7iorth, \>y far the most deadly affection 
of man, killing one-eighth of civilized humanity, and attacking 
one-fourth or even one- third at some period of their lives, is 
also the most prevalent chronic disease of our dairy herds, and 
its extension in the human race bears a remarkable ratio to the 
utilization of the bovine races for dairy products and beef. 
Piscivorous tribes like the western islanders of Scotland are 
usuall}^ remarkably free from tuberculosis, as are also the 
native Chinese who are vegetarians. The ruling Tartar race in 
China, on the other hand, are beef-eaters and largely tuberculous. 
In Egypt and Algiers in the comparative absence of bovine 
herds, the great influx of consumptives has not materially de- 
teriorated the health of the native population, while in Italy, 
Australia, Hawaii and Madeira, where the population freely 
consume the product of the bovine race, the rush of phthisical 
health-seekers has led to a great extension of tuberculosis 
among the natives. Among tribes of our own Indians, w4io 
feed on the raw flesh of the ox, too often diseased, 50 per cent 
of the total mortality is from tuberculosis. 

Concurrent testimony obtained on so large a scale, and from 
such widely different sources, is not to be lightly set aside. 
Tuberculosis is mostly a chronic disease, frequently lasting 
through a long lifetime. A certain number of cases recover, 
many more remain dormant, ready to burst into renewed activity 
whenever the health is otherwise undermined. It is essentially 
a " pestilence that walketh in darkness," and often under an 
outward guise of health, the subject of the disease carries 



around the germs of certain death to his unsuspecting and more 
susceptible fellow. The very latency of the disease in certain 
systems, and the absence of all prominent outward manifesta- 
tions of illness, is a potent factor in the propagation of the 
infection. A disease that is quickly fatal, like smallpox, plague, 
yellow fever or cholera in man, or anthrax, rinderpest or Texas 
fever in cattle, is easily dealt with, since wherever the germ 
exists in connection with susceptible subjects, its presence will 
be speedily manifested, and it can easily be circumscribed 
and crushed out. These make their attack in broad daylight 
as with great sound of trumpet and roll of drum, and we are 
warned to fortify every pass and strengthen every defense. But 
the stealthy tubercle bacillus, which glides up in the darkness 
and silence, and as it were saps our walls of defense without 
visible manifestation or audible sound, and suddenly appears, 
when least expected, in the interior of our most trusted keep, 
is by far the most dangerous enemy. 

To neglect our defense because of this subtlety is to abandon 
our cause and play the poltroon. This is not the part of modern 
science ; this is not the course of the medicine of today and of 
the future. 

To the biologist who has studied the infinitesimal focus of 
parasitic life, the subtlety of the germ is but a challenge to meet 
its inroads by a more effective strategy, to meet its hidden 
mines by equallj^ able countermines, and to turn an otherwise 
assured defeat into an accomplished victory. 

But in doing this he can never safely abandon the first prin- 
ciples of warfare. He can never neglect a favorable opportunity 
to reduce the number of the enemy, nor to prevent him from 
securing reinforcements. Yet this is just the course that is 
strongly urged in regard to tuberculosis. Because some recover, 
and because other cases remain long latent, we are urged to let 
such cases go on in their work of indefinitely multiplying the 
disease germ, and to attack them only when they become acute 
and deadly. Acute cases don't live long to propagate the 
disease; whence then comes the constant succession of cases ? 
Mainly from the latent and recovering ones. 

Our own university herd is a standing example of a sound 
prevention of this infection. Formerly affected with tubercu- 
losis, it has now for a number of years been entirely free from 
the affection, in spite of many risks, and in spite even of the 



presence in the barn, for several months, of a latent and un- 
suspected case, which had been brought from another herd. 
Had we left that dormant case in the herd after its discovery, 
it would in all probability have sooner or latter developed into 
active disease, and become the source of a new general extension 
of tuberculosis in the herd. 

It is impossible, in a short lecture, to lay down infallible and 
iron rules for dealing with this, or any similar disease, under 
all possible circumstances. Special conditions may warrant 
special measures. In the case of valuable animals, where 
economic considerations would warrant the supervision, sepa- 
rate herds of dormant cases may be allowed for breeding pur- 
poses, if they can be kept carefully apart from all other stock, 
their milk products denied to man or animals, and all acute 
cases weeded out from the herd as soon as they can be detected. 
Above all, if such breeding herd of dormant cases can be sub- 
jected to a continuous out-of-door life on the open prairie, 
where the chances of recover}^ are highest, and the risk of con- 
tagion lowest, they may be made profitable by fattening their 
healthy progeny for beef, or still more so by the perpetuation 
of a valuable strain of blood. Under such professional super- 
vision, and frequent testing, the actually recovered animals 
could in due time be removed from their still questioned com- 
panions and restored to a guaranteed herd. 

But the one who w^ould argue from this that the actual 
though somewhat latent and dormant cases should be left in 
the herd that has been tested and proved to be above suspi- 
cion, is but pleading for a free field for the propagation of the 
contagion. The acute cases that would develop at intervals 
would entail new victims, no longer among the latent cases and 
suspected animals only, but among the tested and sound as 
well. 

Under average condition, with low-priced cattle, and a State 
indemnity, the slaughter of all the tuberculous would be the 
course of economical and successful sanitary work, and when 
special conditions rendered another and less radical resort per- 
missible, it should only be adopted when hedged about by such 
precautions as would obviate danger to man and beast. 

We know enough about the dreaded tuberculosis to say that 
we can deal with it successfully under the most varied condi- 
tions, but our past achievement does not imply that we have as 



yet reached the limit of possible success in this disease; and a 
similar success in a State or nation would not warrant us in 
saying that no better measures can be taken. Such a conclu- 
sion would be utterly unscientific and unduly conservative. It 
is the best at present known to us. But in these days when 
knowledge advances -in leaps and bounds, no one can say what 
tomorrow may have in store for us. Some as yet unknown 
Bdison or Tesla may be even now preparing a surprise in the 
revelation and utilization of natural forces of which we little 
dream, and which may cast into the shade our steam engines, 
our electric telegraphs, telephones, phonographs and skiagraphs. 

So in the field of biology and modern medicine. The largest 
hopes and the brightest ideals are likely to prove the most 
scientific. The vivid imagination and the scientific foresight 
must unite to help in our future progress. Not in the case of 
tuberculosis alone, but in connection with the entire field of 
medicine, a whole phalanx of possibilities big with promise 
for the future of humanity confront us. 

As biologists we see genera, species, and even varieties of 
animals that are largely insusceptible to this and that deadly 
disease. It is for us to grasp the cause of this immunity, and 
if possible to render it available over a wider area. 

As bacteriologists, we recognize incompatibilities and an- 
tagonisms between the living cells of the animal body and 
their products on the one hand, and the pathogenic microbe 
and its products on the other. How far can we avail of these 
to strike a balance favorable for and productive to the animal ? 
We are as yet on the mere confines of this great science of 
bacteriology. In the vast microscopic world full of attractions 
and repulsions of living cells and microbes, of neutralizations, 
and physiological antagonisms of leucomains, ptomains, 
toxins and enzymes, of sozins and phylaxins, there are many 
and bright promises for the future of preventive and thera- 
peutic medicine. But it is only the trained mind rich with the 
knowledge already attained in this science that can hope to 
achieve the triumphs of the future. Knowledge, skill, imagi- 
nation, sound judgment and indefatigable industry, must com- 
bine in the man who would hope for success in this field. It 
is no place for the dull or the laggard. 

Without undue arrogance it may be asserted that to us has 
been allotted a large measure of responsibility in relation to this 



12 

work. By the generosity of the Empire State we are enabled 
to enter on the field. We have been furnished with the nucleus 
of a scientific institution from which large and important 
results may fairly be expected. We are honored as being in a 
sen.se the pioneers in a comparatively new field, we have the 
place of advanced guard in the inevitable w^arfare. Though 
small in numbers, our chosen battlefield is one in which 
numbers count for less than quality, and in respect of quality 
we have to prove ourselves. Let us take as our primary 
thought the Socratic aphorism: "Knowledge is virtue: 
ignorance is crime." In our case this is preeminently — I may 
say painfull}^ — true. As the beneficiaries of the State, we shall 
prove unthankful and unworthy if we fail to make the best use 
possible of its bounty. As trusted representatives of science, it 
is expected of us that we fortify ourselves with the lore of the 
past and strike out with clear vision, steady foot and strong 
hand for future achievement. To rest satisfied with any knowl- 
edge short of the best of today, is to neglect our opportunity 
and prove untrue to our trust. The lore of the past can never 
be safel}^ set aside, nor entirely ignored. Yet this has led up 
to so much that is more recent, clearer, more definite, and full 
of so much greater potencies, that w^ith Socrates, we may say 
it is criminal to neglect even its smallest lessons. The accumu- 
lated knowledge of the ages is great and indispensable, but is 
small indeed unless we build upon it the riper fruits of its own 
modern development. This is true for teacher and student 
alike, for are we not all students in one common school ? Some 
of us may have advanced to a higher grade, while some are 
but entering the lowest class, but success will crown each only 
as he devotes his best energies to his work in the spirit of 
truth, and with the ardor of the enthusiast. 

In this, as in all else, we must approve ourselves as men. 
The veterinary profession has long suffered from the low appre- 
ciation in which it has been held. Every one who has conceived 
an attachment to animals, has thought himself competent to 
deal with their diseases. Our State is crowded with men who, 
without further preparation or fitness, have been legally estab- 
lished as veterinarians by a simple registration of their names 
as such. To the future graduate it is given to redeem the pro- 
fession from this low public estimate. He must everywhere 
approve himself first as a man of character, a good man and a 



13 

good citizen. Next he must approve himself as a man of 
science. His judgment and his word must be authoritative on 
all matters that involve his profession, and the great interests 
connected with animal industry. Ke must be an educator in 
the highest sense. Wherever his lot may be cast, with what- 
ever class of domestic animals he may be called upon to deal, 
he must charge himself with the task of bringing to the work 
the accumulated knowledge of the centuries, and especially of 
the wonderful century which is drawing to its close. 

Some of you may be called upon to engage in the extinction 
of animal plagues. In this, spotless integrity must be joined 
to the highest knowledge and skill, and conjoined to a deep 
insight into human nature, and an inflexible purpose of apply- 
ing even-handed justice, if you would escape the danger of being 
overwhelmed in the storm of detraction and misrepresentation 
that will inevitably assail you. The honorable prize to be won 
is a great one, but it requires a good soldier and a sterling man 
to bear the brunt. When the complete triumph comes, you 
will find that your whilom detractors, who have opposed you 
in perfect good faith, will come forward to acknowledge their 
error and endorse your achievement. Some will be called to 
inspect markets and food products, and here with the weighty 
responsibility of a city's health on your shoulders, you will 
bless the day that brought you through the vigorous studies of 
anatomy, physiology, histology, pathology, toxicology, and 
enabled you with scientific certainty to endorse the wholesome 
and condemn the diseased and unwholesome. 

Some I trust will be called to fill chairs of comparative 
pathology and comparative medicine now for the first time 
being established in the most forward medical schools, and 
which must soon be provided in all such schools that are 
worthy of the name. None can fill such a place so well as the 
man who has profoundly studied the special diseases of animals, 
and indeed none other is fitted to do justice to such a chair. 
Kver since Hippocrates, the most advanced physicians have 
recognized and employed the lower animal as a means of 
advancing medical knowledge. Our knowledge of physiology 
largely consists in deduction from experiments made on the 
lower animals; our acquaintance with the physiological action 
of drugs and poisons very largely consists in accurate observa- 
tions made on the lower animals; pathology, surgery and 



medicine owe much — very much — to the same source; and 
bacteriology is essentiall}- based on experimentation on the 
beast. Comparative medicine, therefore, can be best pursued 
by the veterinarian, who, otherwise equally well furnished with 
the medical candidate, adds to his accomplishments thorough 
practical knowledge of all animal diseases. This will quicken 
his insight into pathogenic causes and the significance of 
morbid phenomena, will protect him against hast}- and erroneous 
conclusions, and will make his work at once more productive 
and more reliable. 

Others will be called to undertake investigations in our agri- 
cultural experiment stations, where the same wide and accurate 
knowledge, the same keen insight and skill and the same 
scientific methods, can alone bring out valuable results. 

For all such future fields of usefulness you must now make 
ample and thorough preparation. Patient labor, earnest and 
systematic effort, daily accomplishing of the day's problems in 
a thorough manner, will make the work easy, and assure success. 

In entering this institution you begin in a very special sense 
3^our work of life. Outside of the professional school the work 
of preparation has been essentially general and introductory. 
In the professional college you start upon what you have 
especially chosen as j^our life's work. 

We who are somewhat older in the field are appointed to 
advise and guide you in the preliminary stages. It is our 
purpose and hope to do our whole duty by you, in the right 
spirit. We bespeak your earnest effort to do your whole duty 
by the subject in hand, so that the foundations, at the laying 
of which we mutually labor, may grow up into a grand, noble 
and worthy development — an honor to your alma mater and to 
our benefactor the State of New York. 



HOW TO PREPARE PRODUCTS FOR SHIPMENT 
TO THE PATHOLOGICAL LABORATORY. 



By James Law. 
From the American Veterinary Review, November, i8gy. Pp. 547-552. 



The work of a pathological and bacteriological laboratory is often 
very sadly handicapped by the unsatisfactory condition in which morbid 
specimens reach it, and it occurs to me that it might establish a better rela- 
tion between the practitioner who feels his need of laborator}^ assistance 
on the one hand and the laboratory expert on the other, if some plain 
instructions for the preparation and shipment of morbid products were 
furnished to the former. As specimens are usually received they are too 
often in a condition which renders them absolutely useless for pathological 
purposes, or, failing this, they demand such an outlay of time, labor and 
material in order to trace out the nature of each microbe present that it is 
prodigal in the last degree to attempt such a work. Many specimens 
reach the laboratory in a condition of advanced putrefaction, in which it is 
folly to search for the germ of a specific disease or the features of a definite 
lesion. Others are smeared with filth from outside the body of the animal 
due to contamination by contact with knives, hands, skin, manure, 
earth, foul water, and other impure sources, so that, even in the absence 
of advanced sepsis, the multiplicity of bacteria present demands a long 
and exhaustive investigation before reliable results can be obtained. In 
other cases the ferment-laden contents of internal organs, such as the 
stomach or bowels, become mingled with the bacteria which were at first 
present in the diseased organs, which have been packed with them, ren- 
dering bacteriological work tedious and costly, even if possible at all. 
In still others the sender has taken precautions against the putrefaction 
/ of the product by steeping it in strong alcohol, carbolic acid solution or 
other antiseptic, and has thus effectually prevented any bacteriological 
cultures of the more delicate disease germs. It would be easy to add to 
this list of examples of how not to do it, but it will be more profitable to 
turn to methods by which the sender can place himself in harmony with 
the subsequent work of the bacteriologist and pathologist. 



1st. Select a case in which the disease is fully developed and in 
active progress. At the outset many infectious diseases are strictly local 
atTections, and the malrrics morbi can at this stage be found only in such 
local centre, and the internal organs which are the usual seats of affec- 
tion are still germ free. .Vgaiii, in the advanced stages of a purely con- 
tagious disease the microbe may l)e no longer present, while the struc- 
tural changes caused by it and its products are still sufficiently well 
marked. 

2d. In localized infection take the tissues which bear the local 
lesions. 

3fl. In selecting tissues whicli bear the local lesions, take by prefer- 
ence such morbid conditions as are recent yet well developed, and avoid 
such as have manifestly a complicated infection. It is a common thing 
to find tubercle, anthrax and other lesions complicated by the presence 
of pus organisms and other microbes, and in such cases the search for 
the primary germ of the disease is correspondingly complicated and 
difficult. 

4th. Take the material from a subject whicli is newly killed or has 
died only very recently. In certain diseasi.\s septic microbes from the 
skin, bowels or some other mucous surface, or which are already present 
in the circulating fluids, are propagated with great rapidity, so that in a 
very few hours specimens are almost useless for examination or cultures. 
This is especially true of the warm season and southern latitudes. 

5th. When the infection is generalized, aim at securing one or more 
parencliN'matous organs which are likely to conl.iin an abundance of the 
pathogenic microbes with few or none of the extraneous or saprophytic 
ones. As example of such organs may be named the liver, kidney, 
spleen, lymph glands, heart and lung. 

6th. In securing the morbid specimen, llrsl clip the hair from the 
surface of the body where the incision is to be made, then wash it clean 
with soapsuds, followed by a mercuric chloride solution, j : 5CK). Wash 
the hands and disinfect them in the same way. The knife and forceps to 
be used should be cleansed and placed in, and taken direct from the car- 
bolic acid solution. If greater security is desired they may be dipped in 
absolute alcohol and burned off. 

In case of a superficial local infection, the infected part niay be .seized 
with the sterilized forceps, cut with the sterilized knife, and transferred 
to and wrap])ed securely in a white cloth thoroughly wrung out of the 
mercuric chloride or carbolic acid solution, care being taken that it is not 
allowed to come in contact with any other object. 

If an internal parenchymatous organ is desired, an incision is made 
through the skin, along the ventral a.spect of the l)ody from the pubis to 
the sternum, or the chin, and the skin is dissected back on each .side. 
Then with sterilized knife and, if necessary, bone forceps or saw, the 
alxlomen and perhaps the chest are laid open, so as to expose the organ 
or organs desired ; great care must ])c taken to avoid wounding thestom- 



ach or bowels. Then, with sterilized hands the organ may be seized, cnt 
out and wrapped in a cloth wrung firmly out of a sublimate solution, as 
already advised. It may then be wrapped in paraffin paper, or in extra 
cloths wrung out of sublimate solution, and packed in a scalded jar, or 
in a box with cotton batting, salt, sawdust, wheat-bran, or charcoal for 
shipment. In all cases in \vhich the organ is small (kidneys, lymph 
glands, pancreas, etc.,) it should be sent uncut and unmutilated. In 
large animals in the case of the lungs, liver, spleen or other large organs, 
a portion only will usually be sufficient, choice being made of a diseased 
portion. The excision of such part must be made with sterilized instru- 
ments, and the cut surface may be allowed to bleed, and may then be 
scraped with a sterilized knife before wrapping. 

yth. When it is desired to send liquids like pus, blood, or liquid 
exudation, wash and disinfect skin, hands and knives, as already pre- 
scribed, provide a bottle and cork that have been thoroughly sterilized 
by boiling, incise the sac or infiltrated organ and receive the liquid into 
the bottle direct. Cork and seal. A still more accurate method is to 
provide small glass tubes that have been sterilized by heat, and drawn to 
a point at each end and hermetically sealed, so that a vacuum is left 
internally, having disinfected the surface and incised the sac with a ster- 
ilized knife, one end of a vacuum tube is pushed into it, and its point is 
broken off by pressure against the inner surface of the wall of the sac, 
when it will instantly fill itself with the contained liquid. It is then with- 
drawn and hermetically sealed in a gas or alcohol fiame, or if nothing 
better can be had, with melted wax. 

8th. To send a portion of diseased intestine, wash it out carefully 
with boiled water that has been allowed to cool, tie the ends, and enclose 
in a preserving or other jar, thoroughly sterilized by boiling. If the con- 
tents only of the bowels are wanted, they may be placed in a sterilized 
bottle or jar, and secured with sterilized sealed cork or cover ; whenever 
bottles or jars are used careful packing is necessary to prevent breakage 
and loss of the material. 

9th. In case of a body, which has been opened without any special 
precaution, and in which lesions suggestive of infection are found, the 
organ showing the lesions may be washed in a succession of waters that 
have been boiled and cooled again, and it may then be wrapped in a mer- 
curic chloride cloth and packed for shipment. 

loth. In sending the heart, it is important to retain the blood, and 
all vessels opening into it should be ligated before wrapping. 

EXAMPI^KS OF DISEASES AFFECTING THE DIFFERENT ORGANS. 

In the following list, the organ named is likely to be a seat of infec- 
tion or infestment in the diseases named in connection with it : 

Liver. — Anthrax, hog cholera, contagious pneumonia in the horse 
(brustseuche), omphalo-phlebitis, infectious hepatitis, entero-hepatitis of 



turkeys, infectious leuciL-mia in fowls, fowl cholera, Southern cattle fever, 
hepatic tubercle, actinomycosis, tumors, gall stones, distomatosis, echin- 
ococcus, cysticercus, tennicollis, tiL-nia limbriata, nematodes, etc. 

Spleen. — Anthrax, Southern cattle fever, swine jilague, hog cholera, 
contagious pneumonia, splenic tubercle, actinomycosis, sarcoma, car- 
cinoma, glanders, etc. 

Kidneys. — Anthrax, infectious nephritis, hog cholera, fowl cholera, 
Southern cattle fever, pyaemia, septicemia, calculi, strongylus gigas. 

Lioii^s. — Contagious pneumonia (horse), lung plague (cattle), influ- 
enza, contagious broncho-pneumonia (cattle), canine distemper, swine 
plague, aspergillis, pneumonia ( fowls), pulmonary glanders, actinomy- 
cosis, anthrax, pulmonar}- lesions of petechial fever, pulmonary acariasis, 
pulmonary helminthiasis. 

Stotnach or Bowels. — Hog cholera, swine plague, fowl cholera, dys- 
entery, contagious diarrhoea and nmco-enteritis (Calvisk), milk sickness, 
intestinal anthrax, tuberculosis, actinomycosis, tumors, parasites, etc. 

Lymph Glands. — Anthrax, tuberculosis, glanders, strangles, swine 
plague, hog cholera. 

Brain or Spinal Chord. — Rabies, dourine, ccLMiurus, cerebro-spinal 
meningitis. 

Heart. — Anthrax, milk sickness, swine plague, hog cholera, conta- 
gious pneumonia, influen/.a, petechial fever, ulcerative endocarditis, etc. 

Womb, Fadal 3femhranes. — Contagious abortion, infectious metritis. 

Milk. — Contagious mammitis, aphthous fever, milk sickness. 

Udder, Maimmc. — Contagious mammitis, affecting ducts and folli- 
cles, cow pox. 

Saliva, Bronchial Mucous. — Rabies, contagious pustular stomatitis, 
aphthous fever. 

Jaius, Buccal Jl/ucosa. — Thrush, contagious pustula, stomatitis, aph- 
thous fever, pseudo-membranous inflammation, actinomycosis, tumors. 

Pharynx. — Anthrax, tuberculosis, pseudo-membranous and infectious 
inflammations, glanders, etc. 

Local Lesions. — In certain diseases the lesions are localized in par- 
ticular parts or in the seat of inoculation, and such part must be secured, 
wrapped and shipped with all antiseptic precautions. Thus we have the 
connective tissue and muscles affected in em])hysematous anthrax, malig- 
nant oedema, and other infective local inflammations, etc. The skin in 
cow ])ox, ringworm, acariasis (mange). In tetanus the bacilli are rarely 
or never found exce])t in the seat of the wound. 

In all generalized infectious diseases, it is important to ship several 
diseased organs or parts of organs, thereby rendering the discovery of 
any pathogenic micro-organism much more probable. 



REPORT OF MINIMUM STANDARD OF ENTRANCE 
EXAMINATIONS. 



By James Law. 

From Proceedings United States Veterinary Medical Association. 
1S97. Pp. 226-235, 



111 approaching the question of matriculation examination we are 
confronted by two considerations which are essentially antagonistic in 
their natures. 

First. For the great body of veterinarians the emoluments of the 
profession are often too small to warrant a great outlay of time and 
money in preparing to enter it ; and the man who has spent his early life 
in some occupation connected with the care of animals, has acquired a 
special aptitude in handling and caring for them, but has rarely the 
means requisite for an extended course of study. 

Second. On the other hand the lack of preliminary education places 
a handicap on the efforts of the candidate not only during his college 
career but during his whole subsequent professional life. The nomen- 
clature is for the ignorant a meaningless jargon with which he must strug- 
gle laboriousl}', word for word, without one ray of philological light to 
help the jaded memor3^ In the modern class, say of chemistry, he is 
called upon to face and solve problems for which a knowledge of mathe- 
matics is an essential prerequisite. In pathology and bacteriology, with- 
out which there can be no scientific medicine, he must lay the foundation 
of a knowledge of the microscope for w^hich physics is indispensable. In 
materia medica, if ignorant of botany, he must fail to grasp and utilize 
the families, orders and genera which furnish a key to physiological and 
therapeutical use. 

If he know-s nothing of geology he is debarred from the intelligent 
study and prophylaxsis of enzootic diseases, due to mineral impregnations 
of water and food, or to the propagation of given fauna or flora, and the 
diffusion of given organic poisons, on particular formations. Turn where 
we will, we find the way barred to the candidate who is unprepared or 



poorlv preparc-d, and <)])cn and iiiviliu!^ lo liini who conies armed and 
furnished. 

A no less ini])ortanl consideration is this, that the mind that has l^eeii 
already trained to hahits of study and reasonin«( has capacities to which 
the untrained mind is an entire strani^er. I'rom a lonj^ experience in 
teaching students in the different ye:irs of their university curriculum, 
from the first to the fourth, students who had all entered under the test 
of a severe matriculation examination, I have learned that rr?'/^V7.s/>a/'/Y'//5, 
the students of the third and fourth year were far superior to those of the 
first and second. I have also learned that those who have entered as 
special students without matriculation examination have in their turn 
fallen far behind the students that entered by such examination, and too 
often tlie\- have been compelled to reliiujuish their efforts and drop out of 
the Uni\ ersity without even completing a single year of study. 

I speak now of the rule, not of exceptional cases. Two men of equal 
mental capacity as a native gift, coming to the same task, with minds 
respective!}' disciplined and undisciplined, meet with success and failure, 
in accordance with the measure of such previous discipline. 

The exce])tionally brilliant man is likely to succeed in spite of every 
obstacle, to grasp readily what is beyond the reach of the common mind, 
to learn how best to secure for himself the preliminaries, that will enable 
him to deal with the more difficult jirolilems, and increasing his mental 
strength by patient, earnest, and well directed effort, he ma}- distance 
those who started with far better preparation, but without his mental 
capacity. But even he would have done better work if he had accom- 
plished this preliminary study before he entered on his college course. 
His whole energies could then have been expended, intelligently, from 
the first moment, on his professional studies and the same mental outlay 
would have secured a double or treble return. 

The great majority of our students are not men of genius, and it is a 
poor econoni}' to sacrifice the great body of the rank and file, because one 
great genius can afford to dispense with certain stepping stones to suc- 
cess, or rather can find for himself the stepping stones which we should 
have provided. The time lost even by the genius in finding and placing 
the step])ing stones has lost to him, for the time being, much that he 
should have been free to garner at once. 

But, it ma}' be claimed, the supposed genius could not possibly secure 
both the necessary school preparation, and the professional education. 
He would have been lost to the profession if the ])reliminary education 
requirement had been enforced. On the other hand it may be argued 
that if he had not the courage to face the preliminary work in the regular 
way, he showed himself to be lacking in that virtue of perseverance which is 
so essential to success in after life, and if .so, even his exceptional powers 
in other directions might fail to compensate for the fundamental defect. 
It is easier for him to take these preliminary studies under experienced 



teachers, than to di^^ them out alone with man}- a blunder and stumble. 
The exceptional man may fit himself for veterinar}^ practice without the 
aid of a college at all, but none of us would advocate such a course on 
the ground that he has neither means nor leisure. As teachers it is our 
duty to provide the education which is best all round, for the average 
candidate first and for the man of extraordinar}- abilitj^ as well. We 
cannot afford to sacrifice the average man, to the possibilities of the 
genius, and we cannot afford to dwarf even the genius, because under 
unfavorable conditions he can compare favorabl}' with the average. 

Choose what course we will, we shall turn out a large number of men of 
common powers, and occasionally one of unusual ability. The question 
with us must be : What is best for the future of the profession, and for 
fhe great live stock and national interests involved in this ? Can we 
secure and hold the confidence of the general public and of the govern- 
ment by turning out a large body of men who will do the profession 
meagre credit, and delay the time when they will take their true position 
in the fields of sanitation and medicine? The sister profession has gen- 
erally taken the position that an educated and disciplined mind is essen- 
tial to the study of medicine. We have an even wider field than theirs 
and if we lag behind, and act on the assumption that a mere superficial 
training will suffice for the medicine of the lower animals, can we blame 
legislators if we find what is essentially veterinary work entrusted rather 
to the medical profession. Few members of the medical profession are at 
all fitted to deal with the diseases of animals, but if the legal requirements 
for that profession are a well educated and disciplined mind, and a thor- 
ough course of medicine, it must not surprise us if the lawmakers entrust 
veterinary sanitary matters to the disciplined and accomplished prof ession 
of medicine^ and refuse to entrust them to the comparatively undisci- 
plined and unaccomplished profession of veterinary medicine. 

Even for medicine this legislation for preliminary education and dis- 
cipline is new, and the great body of existing physicians, is in no sense 
guaranteed by it, but the very fact that this demand is on the statute 
book reflects on all and furnishes a general standard which is by no 
means justified by the facts. The medical fraternity which has come 
down to us from the past, profits by the assured legal status of the medical 
graduates of the future, and if we would hold our own proper place in 
public estimation, we too must see that our profession has provided for a 
similar advance. To impose the duties of the veterinary^ sanitarian on 
the physician is a great wrong to the community, and it is little to the 
credit of some members of the medical profession that the)" cling tena- 
ciousl}' to offices which they are by no means fitted to fill, but on the 
other hand, if we would aspire to do our full duty to the people, we must 
furnish the men who in mental discipline, in profound pathological train- 
ing and in special veterinary skill, are fully competent to deal with the 
questions involved. 



Our (leliiKiucncy in this respect tends to iindennine the success of 
llie medical man who trenches on our special field, for he has always to 
fall l)ack on the veterinarian to do the actual practical field work, and in 
pro])ortion to the inefiiciency of the latter will be the inefllciency of his 
su])erior. lint in such a case the odium falls necessarily and justly 
f|uite as much on the veterinary as on the medical jinjfession, for what- 
ever may ])e the shortcomint^s of the medical cliief, they must attach also 
to the veterinar}' re])resentative in the field, and these the latter must 
bear in addition to all his own ])ersonal faults and failures. In the same 
way an inefficient worker in the field must nei^ative to a considerable 
extent the best direction received fnjm a veterinary chief so that in any 
case to insure success we must have our veterinarians thoroUL^hly educated 
in order to accomjilish satisfactory work. 

This seems to be much better understood by the veterinary educators 
of the Old World. To satisfy myself on this point, I have placed side 
by .side the matriculation demands of the European and American Vet- 
erinary Colleges, and I mu.st sa\' that the exhibition is not at all calculated 
to flatter onr national pride. 

In Europe the candidate for matriculation must meet the following 
demands : 

In France. He must be bachelor of letters or sciences, bachelor of 
special secondary education, or a graduate of a national school of agri- 
culture. If a special examination is called for it includes the elements 
of physics, chemistry, botany, zoolog}- and geology. 

In Germany. He nmst furnish a certificate of admission to the high- 
est professional class of a gymnasium, or to the highe.st Latin one, or an 
official certificate of a full equivalent. (Latin is obligatory ). 

In Austria. He must have passed the first six classes in a gymnas- 
ium (the whole course is eight classes), or as an equivalent he must pass 
in German, ph3'sics, chemistr}-, natural histor}-, geography, history, and 
algebra. 

In Russia. He must have passed the first six classes in a gymnas- 
ium ; or the full course in a seminary or professional school. (Latin 
always obligatory). 

In Italy. National literature ; algebra ; elementary geometr}^ and 
physics ; or the license of a lyceum or technical school. 

In Spain. Arithmetic, algebra and geometry. 

In Portugal. Portugese, French, Latin, arithmetic, physics and 
chemistry. 

In Sweden. The first six classes in primary education. 

In Hanover. Certificate of admission to an advanced Latin school, 
a first-class professional school, or a seminary. (Latin obligatory. ) 

In Denmark. Danish and two other tongues (English, French, 
German), mathematics, physics and natural history. 

In Holland. Dutch, German, French and mathematics. 



In S7ai{"rr/a)iii. French and German (or a second livin_!^" tonjj^ue), 
Ivatin, i^eot^raphv, niatlieniatics, natural history, physics and chemistr}-. 

In HiDioary. First six classes in a <!^ymnasiutn, Hunirarian, math- 
ematics, natural history. 

In Reli^iuin. Flemish ; the dei^ree of an university, or of a normal 
school, or of a course in arts, or of an atheneum, or of a slate commercial 
college, or sufficient to admit the candidate to the special schools con- 
nected with an nniversit)' or state military school. 

In England. English, arithmetic, geometry, algebra, history, Latin, 
and one of the following : Greek, I<Vench, German, Italian or Spanish. 

In America the demands are as follows : 

In Neiv York. A four year high school course representing forty- 
eight regent's counts. 

In Neiu York Slate Vclerinary College. A four 3-ears high school 
course, or English, geography, physiology, plane geometry, algebra 
through quadratics. United States history, and any three of the follow- 
ing : Latin, Greek, French, German, plwsics, botany, geology, vertebrate 
zoology and invertebrate zoology. 

In Ohio State University ., Veterinary College, a. For veterinary 
surgeon : arithmetic, geography and grammar, b. For doctor of veter- 
inary medicine : arithmetic, grammar, descriptive and ph3^sical geography, 
English composition and rhetoric, history, Latin, physics. 

In Harvard Veterinary College. English branches and one of the 
following : Latin, French and German prose, plane geometr}- and 
zoology. 

In The University of Pennsylvania Veterinary Department. English 
grammar, orthography and physics. 

In Iowa State Veterinary College English grammar, orthograph}', 
arithmetic, phj'siology and United States history. 

In iMcGill University, Veterinary College. Orthography, arithmetic, 
geography, English composition. 

In Kansas City Veterinary College, McKillip's Veterinary College 
and United States College of Veterinary Surgeons. The education required 
by the Association of American Veterinary College Faculties. 

In the National Veterinary College. The ordinary branches of an 
English education. 

In the Veterinary Department, Detroit School of Medicine. English 
branches. 

In Chicago Veterinary College and Indiana Veteidnary College. 
Common school education. 

In the University of California, Veterinary Department. A written 
examination ; scope not intimated. 

In the Ontario Veterinary College and the Ohio Veterinary College, 
Cincinnati. Reading, writing and spelling. 

The only American examples which at all approximate to the 



European Colleges are those of New York where a four years hi^h school 
course is now demanded by law, and the Ohio vState University, Collej^e 
of Veterinary Medicine, which lor its veterinary doctorate demands, 
arithmetic, j^ammar, descri])tive and ])liysical i^eoorraphy, English com- 
position and rhetoric, history, Latin and ])hysics. To some extent the 
Ohio school amends this h()noral)le standard by ofTering the deji^ree of 
veterinary surgeon on a matriculation in arithmetic, geography, and 
grannnar only. With a veterinary degree of this university to Ije obtained 
on this lower plan, it would not be wonderful if the candidates for the 
higher degree were few and far between. 

The contrast between the requirements in the European and American 
schools becomes still greater when we consider that the college curriculum 
in Europe is almost invariably one of four years of eight or ten months 
each, while most of oiir schools have just adopted a three 3-ear course of 
six months. Five only of our American colleges. Harvard, Iowa, Ohio, 
New York State Veterinary College and Pennsylvania, have an academic 
year of nine months. I'or the remaining eleven the whole curriculum 
covers but eighteen months as contrasted with the thirty-six months 
standard of the European schools. Even our fi\& advance guard sc\\oo\s 
with their three years course of nine months to the year, represent but 
three-fourths of the curriculum of the European schools. And outside 
New York and Ohio, the preliminary requirements bear no ratio to the 
demands for matriculation in Europe. The one American college which 
in its refjuirements will bear comparison with the European is the New 
York State \'eterinary College. Its matriculation examination is more 
exacting than that of the Ro3al Veterinary College of London, but its 
curriculum is still five months .short of that of the London school. If it 
shall attain to its coveted four years course, it will exceed that of London 
by'four months, and may then claim to .stand as the equal of any school 
of the world. 

These facts are not adduced in any invidious sense. They are, how- 
ever, germane to the question before us and that question cannot be solved 
in am- satisfactor}' way without looking these facts squarely in the face. 

If our college curriculum is far short of that of the Eurojjean veter- 
inar}- schools, we cannot afford to add to its inferiority, l)y seeking to de- 
feat any attempt at improving the wofully inadequate matriculation exam- 
ination. If we cannot at once extend our curriculum in the direction 
taken by the European schools, we can at least raise our matriculation 
recjuirements so as to secure the best results from our confessedly too 
short curriculum. It is impossible to grade down, we nui.st henceforth 
grade up. If, for example, the graduates of schools outside New York 
wish to practice in the Empire State they must see to it that their alma 
mater has had a matriculation representing four years of academic work 
e(jual to that demanded by the regents of the high schools of New York, 
and that this has been followed by three years of professional study equal 



to that demanded in the veterinary schools of New York. To admit 
practitioners from other states, would be to place a premium on the lower 
requirements, to aim a deadh' blow at the New York State schools, and 
to foist upon the stock owner of New York, veterinarians of a less edu- 
cated class, when the statute provides that the}- shall have the best. New 
York cannot recede from the position she has assumed. Au}^ such pro- 
posal will be successfully resisted b}- the veterinarians and stock owners 
of the state. The legislature could not think of such a thing as it would 
be a direct act of hositility to the veterinary colleges of the home state 
and to the high status to which the statute holds them*. 

The same remark applies to an}- other state which requires a higher 
standard for its veterinar}- practice than that of adjacent states. To hold 
its own native practitioners or graduates to a high standard, and to admit 
practitioners from outside on a lower standard would be to the last degree 
unpatriotic and injurious. The state must either have no law regulating 
the practice of the profession or it must apply such a statute with in- 
flexible justice, and above all, it must not administer it in favor of the 
alien as against the citizen. 

The difficulty of an equitable adjustment comes from the fact that 
we are a federation of independent states. Congress cannot impose on 
the states a common standard of veterinary education and practice. The 
only harmony attainable must come from the adoption of a common 
standard bj- the different state licensing bodies, and b}^ an agreement of 
such official bodies to accept at their face values the licenses granted 
under government authority in the sister state. To do more than this 
would be to shatter at one blow the superstructure which has been labori- 
ousl}' secured in the different states for the elevation and improvement 
of the veterinar}- profession, and to restore the chaos and confusion of 
fifteen years ago. 

So long as the requirements in the different states vary as much as 
they now do, the best that can be done will be to let the states arrange 
themselves in groups having parallel requirements, and let the licenses 
granted in any one state be accepted in all the other states belonging to 
the same group, while if au}^ practitioner should desire to practice outside 
the states of his own particular group, he must accommodate himself to 
the standard of the state of his adoption, and if that standard is higher 
than in his former home, he must meet the extra requirements, or forego 
the desired change. 

The only possible minimum requirement which will entitle to a 
license to practice in all states alike, is the highest standard set in any 
one of the federated states, and to secure a common standard all must 
reach up to that level. 



INFECTIorS DISIvASlvS COMMON TO MAX AND 
ANIMALS. 



P>v Jami:s Law. 

From A Sysfrtn of PmcUcal Medicine hy Atueriean Authors.. 
I'ol. III. jSi^S. Pp. 77/-7.SV. 



GLANDERS. 



Synonyms. — IVIalleus ; Kciiiinia ^rnvior ; I^arcy. 

I)i:kinition. — An acute or chronic infeclious disease attacking the 
hnil)hatic S3'steni, especially of the upper air ])assa_s^es or of the skin, and 
characterized b}- a proj^ressive hyper])lasia with a stron.i^ tendency to de- 
i^eneration and ulceration. As afFectini,^ the skin it is usually known as 
/iirey, whereas in the deeper organs it is known as o/ii>/(/ers. Tlie com- 
bination /ij';ri'-<,''A?;/fl'<';'.i is usual in acute cases. 

.hiitna/s sitseeptih/e. — This is especialh- a disease of soHjieds (horse, 
ass, mule, etc. ), but is inoculal)le on most'mammals (exce])ting those of 
the genus Bovis) and on the human being. In addition to bovine ani- 
mals, the house- and the white n)ouse, the rat, the hen and the linnet 
prove refractory. Sheep, swine, and pigeons can be inoculated, but not 
with certainty. The ass is especially susceptible and contracts the dis- 
ease in its worst form, so that it is usually selected for test inoculations. 
Next to the ass the guinea-pig is the most serviceable. White and house 
mice are insusceptible to glanders, l)ut are susceptible to strangles, whereas 
field mice are susceptible to glanders, but insusceptible to strangles, 
thereby affording a means of distinguishing these two affections. Glan- 
ders inoculated on the dog advances for eight to fifteen days ; then the 
ulcer becomes stationary for one or two weeks, and ends by cicatrization 
and complete recovery. In the cat death may arrive in two weeks, with 
articular lesions. The virus has l)een found to l)e less])otent on other ani- 



mals after several passages through the cat (ZakharofiF), whereas its po- 
tency was enhanced by passing through the pig or lion (Gamaleia, 
Trasbot). 

Geographical Distribution. — Glanders exists in the greater part of 
the civilized world, whether in the eastern or western hemisphere, but its 
ravages are greatest in the temperate zones, where enterprise is most 
active and the movement and sales of horses are the most numerous. 
Thus in Norway there are but six cases yearly for 100,000 horses, in Bel- 
guim 138, and in France until recently 1130 (now 42). In the United 
States it seems to have been largely confined in the Northern States be- 
fore 1861, but spread over the South in connection with the war. Mexico 
it is said to have entered with the American cavalry in 1847. Similarly 
Portugal is said to have been exempt until the Napoleonic invasion in 
1797. Central Hindustan was said to be free from it until the war wnth 
Afghanistan in 1878. In all these cases the movements of cavalry and 
artillerv^ and of commissariat trains spread the affection widely. In our 
own case the sales of horses and mules at the close of the war produced 
a very general diffusion from which we are still suffering. 

Insular places escape, especially if far from the main land and free 
from importation of horses. Thus glanders is very rare in Iceland and 
the Faroe Islands, with 35,000 horses, and in Bornholm with 7,000, while 
in Australia, Tasmania, and New Zealand it is unknown. 

Etiology. — The one essential cause of glanders is the bacillus mallei, 
a small rod-shaped body in length about one-third the diameter of a red 
blood globule. 

Though this germ is most abundant in the tissues of the neoplasms, 
and in the discharges from the open abscesses and ulcers, and especially 
those of the nasal and pulmonary mucosa, yet no vascular tissue of the 
body possesses an imnmnity, and infection has been conveyed by trans- 
fusion of the blood of the badly affected glanderous animal, as well as by 
the mucus, tears, saliva, sweat, urine, and milk. It has been transmitted 
by coition, and from mother to foetus, even when no apparent disease of 
the placenta existed. Many failures, however, occur when these natural 
secretions are inoculated. 

Infected secretions, and above all the discharges from the specific 
sores, may dry upon any solid body and be transmitted by mediate con- 
tagion, or as dust they may be carried on air currents and infect animals 
at a distance. Among the connnon channels of mediate contagion may 
be mentioned the racks and mangers in livery stables and public feeding 
places, public drinking troughs, buckets, harness, clothing, combs, 
brushes, rubbers, solid food, litter, the hands and clothes of attendants, 
poles of wagons, etc. 

In addition to such accessory causes must be named all those condi- 
tions of life which increase the susceptibility of the animal. While there 
is undoubtedly a variable susceptibility in different horses and other soli- 



peds, yet in all the main sonrces of increased susceptibility are to be 
found an inipainnent of the "general health and vii^or. All chronic and 
exhaustinjLj diseases i)reilispose, so that before the discovery that glanders 
arises from infection alone it was thou<^ht to be the windini^ up of all 
wastinj;^ and debilitatinj^ disorders in the horse. Similarly, debility from 
low feedin<j; and overwork has often been shown to be followed by a great 
extension of the malady, while a butter diet and rej^inien reduced the 
numlier of cases. Dark, tlamp, and cold stables have similarly deter- 
mined a great increase of cases, wliich iliminished with sunshine, warmth, 
and dryness. I-'inall}-, impure air, and especially such as has been breathed 
repeatedly and largely robbed of its oxygen, is perhaps the most potent of 
all accessory causes. In the British military exj)editions prior to iS6S the 
cavalry sent by sea and often battened down during storms, were usually 
decimatedbyglandersorwor.se. Since thai dale, with ihe rigid exclu- 
sion of glandered honses from this arm of the service and the purifying 
of the transports, escape has been the rule. Prior to 1836 the French cav- 
alry stables were very badly ventilated, and glanders carried oflF 140 per 
1000 horses yearly ; at llial dale improvements ni.iinly in \eulilation re- 
duced this loss to 34, and later still further imi)rovenients lowered the 
glanders losses to 2. In close stables, and especially cellar stables, any 
existing glanders spreads quickly and in its worst forms. 

Bacillus Mallei. — This was described and figured by Chrislol and 
Kiener in 186.S as a chain of globular Itodies in a common sheath. In 
1881-82, Bouchard, Capitan, and Charrin in France and Lofller and Schiitz 
in Germany investigated and demonstrated the germ by cultures and oth- 
erwise. The early work of Kitt and Weichselbaum was no less important. 

The germ is rod-shaped, 2 to 5 /' long by 0.5 to 1.4 // thick, or about 
the length of the bacillus liibcrciilosis, and a little thicker. It grows 
thicker, and even somewhat shorter, in licjuid cultures, still more empha- 
sizing the difTerence. The germs also differ widely in their susceptibility 
to stains and bleaching agents. The glanders bacillus stains more speed- 
ily than ihal of tuberculosis, especially in alkaline solutions, and it parts 
wilh its color in acids far more cjuickh-. 

The had II us mallei is aerobic (facultative anaerobic), non-motile, 
and i)arasilic. It grows, however, in many nutrient culture media, and 
nt)tably in glycerin agar or on potato, forming on the latter long fila- 
ments. The best temperature for culture is 37° C, and it will not grow 
below 22° C. nor above 42° C. On agar in forty-eight hours it forms a 
dense o])a(|ue milk white layer, changing later to yellow and Ijrown. 

Its vitality is destroyed by a tenn)erature of 100° C. for two minutes, 
or of 35° C. for ten minutes (Loffler). It is devitalized by corrosive sub- 
limate (I : 3(X)()) in two minutes ; by j)ermanganate of ])otash (i : 100) in 
Iwo minulas ; by carbolic acid (5 ; 100) in one hour ; by sulphate of cop- 
per (2 :ioo) in ten days. Loffler found that in the dessicated di.scharges 
vitality was preserved for months. Cadeac and Malet found that steriliza- 



tioii was effected if drying took place very slowly. In putrefying ma- 
terials virulence lasts for fourteen to twenty-four days, in water for fif- 
teen to twenty days. In the shade in the moist air of the stable it may be 
preserved for four months. 

Fig. 54. 



^^ 



-/ 



>i 



Fig- 53- 



^0 ^^ 






Bacillis of glanders [bacillus 
mallei). (Abbott). 










%^ 






r 

Malleus bacilli in a malleus nodule 
(after Plligge). 



X 700 



Pathoi^ogicai. Anatomy of Chronic Gi^anders. — The presence 
in the tissue of the glanders bacillus and its toxic products usually results 
in an active proliferation of small round cells (lymphoid) which form nests 
like miliary tubercles enclosed in a fibrous stroma. These centres of cell 
development may become confluent and form larger masses, like peas or 
greater. The centre of the group tends to degenerate, the cells under- 
going fatty degeneration and l)reaking down into a granular debris. 
There are formed sanious abscesses, ulcers, and cicatrices. In other cases, 
instead of this softening of the neoplasm, the fibrous stroma becomes 
denser and an indurated nodule results. 

I. On the respiratory mucous membrane two forms occur, and often 
coexist. After a short period of nasal catarrh in which there is a more 
active production and granular or purulent degeneration of the mucous 
corpuscles, the morbid cell proliferation extends into the fibrous sub- 



stance of the mucosa and the foci stand out as grains of sand or millet- 
seeds on the surface. By confluence of two or more they form larger 
nodules like peas or greater. These are whitish or reddish gray, with a 
congested peri])heral /.one and may be isolated or in groups. As they 
increase the whole mucosa often assumes a dark red or leaden hue, which 
is, however, less marked as the di.sease is more chronic. The clusters of 
lynii)li()i«l txlls in llie CLiilre of the nodule are the palest ])orti(jn of the 
lesicni, and early break dow n into a fatt\' graiudar (lel)ris or ])us, which is 
discharged by bursting, leaving an nicer of a superficial round or oval or 
of a deep irregular form. The depth of the ulcer is of a yellowish or 
lardaceous a])pearance mixed more or less with red, and the edges are 
often elevated and overhanging. When two or more ulcers have become 
confluent the edges are irregular and jagged. The superficial ulcers may 
heal without leaving au}- cicatrix, while the deep ones tend to extension 
laterally or ])erpendicularly, perforating the mucosa, the cartilages, or 
even the bones. When these deeper or conlluenl ulcers cicatrize a dis- 
tinct stellate ov otherwise puckered condition remains. These lesions are 
connnon on tlie septum nasi, i\iv lurl)inated bones, or are .seen after death 
on the ethmoid cells, on the mucosa lining the antri, or on the Eustach- 
ian tubes or ])OUch. The laryn.x, too, may l)e involved, especially the 
region of the arytenoitl cartilages, the epiglottis, or ventricle. In some 
cases there is difTuse infiltration of a portion or the whole of the nasal 
mucosa, which is greatly thickened and congested, of a dark red hue, 
and the seat of superficial ulcers like pinheads or larger, and in certain 
ca.ses of cicatrices. The cicatrices, however, do not always follow on the 
healing of ulcers, but result in s<jine instances from a fd)roid transforma- 
tion of ihe uci>i)lasni. 

The bacilli are found l)etween the lym])hoid cells, but are compara- 
ti\ ely in small nunil)ers in the more chronic cases. Swelling of the sul)- 
niaxillarv Ivniphatic glands is a common feature 

2. The lungs are usually the seat of miliarly or larger nodules in 
chronic glanders. These are gray, translucent, or white, with a dark red 
/.one of investing congestion. If older they may show a dirt}- gray or 
yellow necrobiosis in the centre, which may burst and discharge into a 
bronchus or may undergo calcification. The tissue surrounding such 
caseated masses has a yellow lardaceous aspect and an irregular, uneven 
surface very different from the smooth walls of an inspissated abscess or 
a degenerated hydatid. Secondary nodules appear attached to or adjoin- 
ing the ca])sules of these .softened masses, especially along the course of 
the lyni])hatic vessels, which are inflamed and thickened (corded). The 
broncliial and mediastinal lymphatic glands are usually implicated. 

In ])\:\cv of miliary or fusiform tubercles there ma)- be extensive lob- 
idar or lobar ])neunionia, starting usually in a ])erilol)ular lym])hangitis 
and dettrniinin-^ central neo])lasms in si/e from a ha/elnut to a mass 
several inches in diauielc-r, with necrobiotic, or even puruk'nt centres, or 
of a soft gra}ish white sarcomatous as])ect, or hard and resistant from 



the abundance of the fibrous stroma. In their intimate structure these 
show the same nests of lymphoid cells in a fibrous stroma, spindle shaped 
cells, and degenerate products as in the nose lesions. 

As concomitant lesions in certain cases are found peribronchitis, 
bronchitis, bronchiectasis, and pleurisy with recent vascular fringes or 
adhesions. 

The pulmonary lesions are primary, from inhalation, in exceptional 
cases, but usually secondary from the primar}^ foci in the nose, skin, or 
elsewhere, in the line of the systemic circulation, the bacilli, blood- 
borne, finding their first opportunity for rest and development in the 
walls of the pulmonary capillaries. The early implication of the pleura 
appears to come from a reflux in the pulmonar}' lymphatics determined 
by active or deep inspiration. 

3. The lymphatic glands on the line of circulation from any exist- 
ing disease focus are early implicated. Thus the submaxillary glands 
are always involved on the same side with the affected nasal chamber and 
the bronchial and the mediastinal glands in cases of pulmonary glanders. 
There is first an active parenchymatous inflammation with swelling and 
tenderness, aud later a firm induration with diminished vascularity. At 
first there is the same active proliferation of small round cells, and later 
an increased fibroid development. Here and there, however, are grayish 
white nests of cells or yellowish centres of caseation. An hypertrophy 
of the fibrous covering is a barrier to rupture and discharge of the soft- 
ened contents, especially in the case of the submaxillary glands. 

4. In cutaneous glanders (farcy) the most characteristic features are 
the formation of rounded nodules (farcy buds) in the derma and in the 
subcutaneous and intermuscular connective tissue, and the inflammatory 
thickening (cording) of the lymphatic vessels. The histological elements 
are the same as in the other glanderous neoplasms. The nodules in the 
skin, of the average size of a pea, rapidly soften, burst, and form an ulcer 
discharging a serous or glairy liquid. The nodules in the connective tis- 
sue attain from the size of a hen's egg to a large orange or greater, and 
these, too, rapidly soften and discharge a more or less glairy purulent 
fluid, and often prove refractory to heal. 

5. Other internal organs may be found to be the seat of the specific 
nodules about in the order following : spleen, liver, kidneys, and testicles. 
The histological features do not differ from those met in other organs. 

PATH01.0GICAI. Anatomy of Acute Gi^andfrs, — In this the essen- 
tial microscopic features do not differ from those of the chronic type ; 
only the disease makes rapid progress, invades successively the different 
parts of the body, determines active local inflammations and exudations, 
and early death. If it has commenced in a limb, there may be an inflam- 
matory engorgement of a joint or of the entire member, which for a time 
hides the nodules and indurated lymphatic vessels. If it starts in the 
nose, there is excessive swelling of the mucosa and submucosa, with dark 



red discoloration and rapidly advancing ulceration. The subniaxillar\- 
lymphatic glands undergo rapid swelling and may even, exceptionally, 
rupture and discharge ; and extensive secondary nodules and acute ab- 
scesses in the lungs and other internal organs are met with. 

One striking feature of glanders is the friability of the bones, especi- 
ally in chronic cases ; another is the excess of white globides in the blood, 
the formation of which appears to be stimulated by the irritation of the 
lymph glands and of the bone marrow. 

Symptoms of Acute Glanders. — /// the Horse, Ass ami Mule. — 
The disease is common in the ass and mule, but infrequent in the horse. 
After an incubation of three to five days the animal has a rigor, elevated 
temperature, a profuse muco-purulent discharge from the nose, some- 
times mixed with blood or alimentary matters arrested in the pharynx ; 
if unilateral, this is especially characteristic ; running from the corres- 
ponding eye is not uncommon. The margin of the nostril swells, the 
mucosa is dark red, infiltrated, marked with pea-like yellowish elevations 
with red areolae, which in a few days become ercded into increasing 
ulcers. The discharge is sticky, matting together tht* hairs and skin of 
the nostrils. The submaxillar}' lymphatic glands on the aflfected side 
swell, feeling like a bag of peas, tending to adhere by the inflamed 
(corded) lymphatics to the bone, the skin, or root of the tongue. There 
may, however, be a uniform swelling filling the whole intermaxillary 
space. There is early im])lication (cording) of the cutaneous lymphatics 
of the cheek and of the bod}-, with nodules, exudations, ov arthritis. The 
condition is rapidly aggravated, and death ensues, usually from suffoca- 
tion, from the sixth to the fifteenth day. 

Symptoms of Chronic Glanders. — In (he Horse. — The disease 
may begin with a rigor, but usually the onset appears insidious. There 
may be muco-purulent discharge from one or (less significant) from both 
nostrils, becoming sticky and sometimes streaked with blood. The pre- 
vious occurrence or coincidence of intermittent or continued lameness, 
arthritis, oedema of a limb, swelling of a testicle, cough, or epistaxis is 
significant. Still more significant is the nodular, comparatively painless 
swelling of the submaxillar}- lymph gland on the same side, feeling like 
a mass of peas and adherent to adjacent structures. The nasal mucosa 
is congested, of a dark red on part or all of the septum, and ulcers, super- 
ficial or deep and clean, or covered with crusts of a red. black, brown. 
yellow or green color, are found. 

In excej)tional cases the submaxillary glamls only are apparently dis- 
eased, the bacillus having entered the lymph channel through the soft 
mucous cell or the primary lesions of the mucosa having healed over. In 
other cases there is only a cough and a grayish uncertain expectoration, 
the latent lesions being confined to the lungs. In still other cases the 
lesions are confined to the testicle, the spleen, or some other internal 
organ, and symptoms may or may not be present. 



In chronic cutaneous orlanders, with or without oedema of a limb, 
there may be a nodule on the fetlock, or elsewhere on the line of the 
lymphatic vessels, with induration of the lymphatic trunks extending 
from it. The nodules may or may not be multiple, and they may or may 
not be open and discharging an ichorous or glairy liquid. 

Equivocal chronic cases may often be rendered more active and dis- 
tinctive by a dose of physic, and still more so by poor feeding, over work, 
impure air, debilitating disease, or any other cause which deteriorates the 
general health. Acute glanders often follows. 

By way of diagnosis, inoculation of the animal itself may be enough. 
Yet in chronic cases the susceptibility is usually somewhat lessened, and 
the absence of resulting local lesions is not to be implicitly relied on. 
A better course is to inoculate a healthy donkey or guinea-pig, which 
will develop acute glanders in six da3'S. 

A prompt and most reliable test is to inject the suspected animal 
with the sterilized toxic products of the bacillus mallei (mallein). This 
is the exact equivalent of the "tuberculin" test for tuberculosis, and is 
almost equalh- trustworthy. The mallein is obtained by making arti- 
ficial cultures of the bacillus mallei in glycerined nutrient liquids, kill- 
ing the bacillus by heat, filtering it out, and diluting the filtrate with 
phenic acid solution (2 per cent.) until i c.c. is the proper dose for an 
average horse. First used in 1888 by Helman in Russia with curative 
intent, it soon came to be trusted as a diagnostic agent because of the 
local and general reaction which it produced in cases of glanders. 
The hypodermic injection is made at midnight or very early in the 
morning, and the temperature is taken four hours later and every hour 
thereafter up to the sixteenth or later. In cases of glanders the tem- 
perature rises gradually to 2° and upward above normal, and falls equally 
gradually. The rise may last two or three hours only or it may exceed 
forty -eight hours. A steady rise to 1.5° above normal and gradual fall is 
ground for suspicion and good ground for a second test later. At3^pical 
reactions in which there is an abrupt rise and fall are not to be trusted as 
indicating glanders. In addition to the rise of temperature, theglandered 
horse usually shows weakness, drowsiness, inappetence, staring coat, 
shivering or tremors, and accelerated pulse and respiration. In the seat 
of the injection there is active phlegmonous swelling the size of the hand 
or larger and lasting several days. 

Symptoms of Cutaneous Gi^anders or Farcy. — This may be 
acute or chronic. In the former case it is ushered in by fever, with 
rigor, malaise, loss of appetite, high temperature, and suppressed secre- 
tions. There may be acute inflammation or swelling of one or more 
joints of the limbs, or an extensive cedematous engorgement, usually of 
a limb, in w^hich, or around its margins, may be felt the inflamed and 
thickened walls of the lymphatics (corded lymphatics), wath at intervals 
nodules the size of a pea or hazelnut. These rapidly undergo softening 



and burst, fonninj^ a deep ra<j^ged ulcer, and dischari^ini^ a thin glairy, 
sometimes bloody fluiil. If the fever is maintained, there early super- 
venes a fatal nasal glanders. 

The chronic forms generally come on without manifest fever or gen- 
eral disorder. Willi or without, extensive swelling in a joint or limb, the 
nodules (farcy buds) develop on the line of the corded lym])hatics, on or 
near the fetlock or hock, or on the line of the saphena vein, and tend to 
burst and discharge, though they may be covered by scabs. Between 
these nodules the lymphatics are hard and corded. This affection of the 
lymphatics is characterized by extension from below upward toward the 
body, whereas in the ordinary acute C(jnstitutional lymphangitis in the 
horse the heat and tenderness are first noticed in the external inguinal 
glands and extend downward along the line of the saphena vein. 

GLANDI'RS IN iMAN. 

It was only in 1S12 that this disease was recognized in man as being 
identical with that of the horse. Soon, however, many cases were 
reported, some acute and others clirouic. and all traceal)le to the same 
source. 

Etiology. — As in otlier animals, the one essential cause of the 
disease is inoculation with the bacillus mallei. In man it is almost 
always derived from the horse, and hence the disease is mainly an indus- 
trial one, attacking those that come in contact with horses — grooms, 
coachmen, farmers, veterinarians, horse l)utchers, luMse dealers, .soldiers, 
being especially liable to l)e infected. Handling the glindered horses 
with abraded or wounded hands, giving medicine, and scratching the 
hands on the teeth, receiving on tlie cnc, nose, or otlier mucous mem- 
brane the particles scattered in snorting, drinking from the same trough 
or bucket with a glandered hor.se, and using a knife that has been 
employed on the .sores of glanders, are well known occasions of infection. 
Less common channels are the infected harness, pole, or shafts, the use 
of handkerchiefs, towels, or clothing after a glandered man, the washing 
of his clothing (Klliotson), and the manipulation of cultures of the 
bacillus. In 1S89, Dr. HofTman perished miserably in \ieniia from acute 
glanders contracted from his own artificial cultures. I)u I'a(|uin of the 
University of ^lissouri also sutTeretl through expeiinientation, but 
recovered. 

Women do not constitute over live per cent, of the \ictiins, and nearly 
all are wives of hostlers, grooms, or coachmen or are employed about 
stables. In 120 cases i only was in an infant, and that the child of a 
coachman who had dressed glandered hor.ses. 

The flesh of glandered horses or other animals has often been eaten 
with impunity, cooking and the gastric secretions both contributing to 
disinfect it, yet neither of these slu)uld be implicitly relied upon, since 



lO 

dogs, cats, prairie-dogs, lions and polar bears have contracted the dis- 
ease by eating glandered horses, and abrasions of lips, gums, and tongue 
are so common that immunity cannot well be hoped for. Moreover, the 
entrance of the bacillus through the buccal nuicosa, the tonsils of pharynx 
is altogether probable. Persons sleeping in sta1)les occupied by glan- 
dered horses, but not handling them, have often suffered, apparently 
through the virulent discharges dried up on stalls, fodder, or litter, and 
then distributed as dust to be inhaled. Yet this mode of infection is rare, 
and horses will often stand for mouths in stalls near to one occupied by 
a glandered horse without contracting the disease. 

Finally, many men are comparatively insusceptible to glanders, which 
serves to explain why so few suffer in infected stables, and cases like that 
of Decroix, who boasted that he repeatedly ate the raw flesh of glandered 
horses with impunit}'. Inoculation with the juice of such flesh is usually 
successful. 

Many of the human victims of glanders have been apparently healthy, 
vigorous men in the prime of life. 

PaThoi^oGical An.\tomy. — In man as in animals the morbid pro- 
cess consists essentially in the proliferation, especially in the lymph 
spaces and glands, of lymphoid and fusiform cells in a fibrous stroma, 
resulting in coagulation necrosis or suppurative processes, ulceration, or 
abscess. In man, however, the formation of tumors and the enlarge- 
ment of the lymphatic glands are less prominent features, and the dis- 
ease more nearly resembles pyaemia. In the advanced stages pyaemia is 
a frequent complication. The contents of the glanders abscess, how- 
ever, is more glair}- and bloody, the walls are irregular, grayish or yel- 
lowish red, and ulcerating, and the surrounding tissues, especially if in 
the muscles, are softened and pale. The nmltiple neoplasms, too, in all 
stages of progress from the simple congestion, through the solid granu- 
lation papule or nodule, to softening or ulceration, together with the 
occupation of the patient, will serve to correct misapprehension. The 
skin papules and pustules have often been mistaken for smallpox or 
rotheln. The advanced specimens contain caseo-purulent contents or a 
glairy sanguineous fluid covering a coagulation necrosis, and are further 
identified by the connecting corded lymphatics. The diffuse inflamma- 
tory and oedematous lesions may be readily taken for erysipelas, but the 
characteristic nodules or small abscesses with reddish contents in this 
focus or in distant parts of the skin and joints serve to distinguish. 

In the nose the small papules or nodules w-ith grayish or yellowish 
centres, and the irregular, unhealthy, spreading ulcers, extend to the 
bone and cartilage and even to the facial muscles and skin, producing 
the most unsightly swellings and sores. The submaxillary and sub- 
lingual glands swell in nodular form, and the intervening lymphatics 
become corded. Similar formations are found on the mucosa of the 
pharynx and larynx, the nasal sinuses and palate, the ulcers on the 
mouth often strongly resembling the syphilitic sore. 



II 

When the hutgs are involved, as the}- often are, there may be ca- 
tarrhal bronchitis, peribronchitis, lobular or lobar ])neunionia, and pleur- 
itic echyniosis and conjj^estion, with more or less numerous miliary- or 
pea-like nodules of a j^ray, yellowish, or reddish hue, hemorrhaj^ic infarc- 
tions and abscesses. 

J///^Y7//</;- /<'.S7'6>;/.? a])])ear to be most common in the pectoral region 
and n])])er liml). The nuiscle is the seat of a cloudy swelling, a granular 
degeneration of the fibre, and lymphoid cells nmltiplying rapidly, form- 
ing a nodule which undergoes coagulation necrosis and even suppura- 
tion with yellowish, glairy, perhaps bloody contents. The wall has an 
irregular cloudy yellow or reddish appearance, and the swelling may 
vary from a pea to a pigeon's egg. vSimilar formations are found in the 
subcutaneous connective tissue and lymphatic glands. 

The bofie ixnd prrios/ci/fn are implicated by extension from the super- 
posed soft parts or through the blood, small yellowish nodules appearing 
on or in them, and the degeneration products detaching the membrane 
from the underlying bone. This is especially common about the face, 
the cranium, and the bones of the limbs, and at tendinous insertions. 

The syf/oz'ia/ mcmbraues of affected joints are the seat of congestion, 
miliar}' nodules, and a])scesses, and the articular cartilage is rough and 
eroded. 

The specific nodules and abscesses are also found in the stomach, 
liver, spleen, kidneys, testicles, and brain, and an inflammatory form 
in the brain (myelitis malleosa) is not unknown. 

Lesions of the mucosie are most prominent in the chronic forms, and 
those of the viscera in the acute. 

In all cases the presence of the bacillus in the discharges, the scrap- 
ings of the ulcers, or the nodules is a common feature. 

Symptoms. — Acute Glanders. — Incubation in acute cases is from one 
to three days ; in chronic or subacute forms it may appear to be as many 
weeks. 

In acute cases the initial symptoms are general malaise, weariness, 
headache, chilliness, and obscure pains in the muscles or joints, especially 
of the limbs. This may be mistaken for rheumatism or typhoid fever, 
but this mistake is usually soon dispelled by the supervention of local 
lesions. Though the infection wound may have healed, it now becomes 
the seat of itching, formication, pain, redness, swelling, and inflamma- 
tion, which extend along the 13'niphatics, as shown by the red and 
corded lines running out from the cicatrix. Vesicles with reddish con- 
tents appear around this ; the wound may burst, discharging a serous 
or glairy reddish fluid, and the whole arm or face may develop an 
erysipelatoid swelling. From this the sore may granulate and heal, and 
recovery ensue, but more commonly the lesions extend and the disease 
is generalized. The fever increases and becomes constant ; there are 
anorexia, nausea, vomiting, sweating, constipation followed by diarrhoea, 



12 

violent headache, severe pains in the joints and muscles, and great pros- 
tration. If there are no local lesions, infection having occurred by the 
lungs or stomach, it may still be mistaken for typhoid fever, but this 
will be corrected by the history and later developments. 

Soon the skin of the face or body shows red spots which develop into 
pealike pustules, like smallpox, and these bursting discharge a thick 
fetid, blood}^ matter. Or the swellings may be large, rounded, firm, 
painful, and gradually softer and fluctuating. When bursted or opened 
they show yellowish red irregular walls enclosing the whitish contents. 
These ma}- be circumscribed or general over the whole skin, and they 
may expose muscles, tendons, or bones. 

When the nose is affected, which occurs less constantly in man than 
in the horse, there is a thin, sticky, catarrhal flux, with occasionally a 
brownish, greenish, or reddish discoloration, and foetor. Nodules and 
ulcers with irregular borders and lardaceous yellowish base can usually 
be seen on the mucosa or on the skin adjoining the nostril. The nose 
or whole face may swell, become tense and ulcerate, and the lymphatics 
leading to the lower jaw become hard and corded. Catarrahal discharge 
and ulceration may appear in eye and mouth, the breath becomes intol- 
erably fetid, and swallowing and even breathing difficult from implica- 
tion of pharynx and larynx. The breathing is snuffling or oral, the 
nose being closed by swelling, scabs, and discharge, and the nostrils 
agglutinated together. 

The implication of internal organs may be shown by cough, pain in 
the chest, bronchi, and other morbid chest sounds, nausea, vomiting, 
fetid diarrhoea, jaundice, abdominal tenderness, albuminuria, and the 
presence of leucin, tyrosin, and other imperfectly oxidized products in 
the urine. 

The pulse becomes rapid, small, thready, or imperceptible ; the tem- 
perature may reach io6° F., and the mind may be clouded or delirious. 
Death ensues from collapse following stupor and coma, or from dyspnoea. 

Chronic Glanders. — The constitutional disorder is usually present 
from the first, but is much less marked. Ulceration appears in the infec- 
tion wound, or swellings and corded lymphatics in its vicinity ; also 
swelling of the Ij^mphatic glands. These are usually on the bare parts 
of the skin, the face, and upper extremity. The ulcers are indolent, and, 
though healing in part, will give rise to nodules and abscesses around 
them, which burst, discharging a sanious pus, and are tardy to heal. 
Abscesses may appear at distant points or gradually over the body with 
erysipelatoid inflammation, especially of the face, and arthritis. Thus 
the acute and fatal form supervenes. 

When the nose is affected the lesions do not differ from those seen in 
the acute form, but they are more circumscribed and indolent. The 
nodules, ulcers, and sticky, foul discharge agglutinating the nostrils are 
no less characteristic. This may not appear in more than one half the 



cases, and often not for months after infi-ction. Tlie month and tliroat 
become involved, with fetor, salivation, dilTicult dei^lntition and hreath- 
inj^, and the im])lication of the Innj^s is shown by conijh, dyspiuea, and 
morl)id chest sounds. 

There is a variable but remittent fever, and the jnitient becomes 
pallifl, emaciated, and debilitated, and the disease merges into the fatal 
acute ty])e. 

When the sym])tonis improve in mild chronic cases recovery may 
be hoped for. Tlie fevcM- decreases, the pulse improves, the swellings 
subside, the ulcers and abscesses granulate and heal, and appetite and 
digestion improve. Recover)' is slow, and from four months to as many 
years may be recjuired to "effect it. With serious lesions of the lungs or 
other internal organs difhcult 1)reathing, general debility, and weakness 
are ]:)ersistent. 

Prophylaxis. — 'I'he prevention of glanders in man can only be 
obtained l)v its extinc-tioii in the e(juine family. P.ut this will never 
be accomplished ])y present methods. Laws forbid the keeping of glan- 
dered horses, but the}' are largely a dead letter because there is no 
proper machiner}- for their execution. The a])plication of the mallein 
test to all glandered studs, the destruction of all glandered horses, the 
disinfection of carcasses, .stables, harness, vehicles, utensils, fodder, litter, 
manure, would soon make the disea.se extinct. Until this can be effected 
all who handle hor.ses should l)e instructed in the danger, and enjoined 
never to touch a suspected animal or anything belonging to him A\ith 
any sore on the hands ; to wa.sh hands and face in a .solution of carbolic 
acid (1:200) after handling a glandered animal or anything belonging 
to him or with which he has been in contact ; to burn the manure of 
the affected animal ; to destro)- or disinfect the stall, harness and utensils ; 
to boil all clothing that has been on the horse or his attendants, and 
generally to guard again.st an}' pos.sible channel of contagion. 

Trk.\Ti\ient. — /;/ An 1 Dials. — In view of the danger to man .some 
countries legally prohibit the treatment of glanders in animals. While 
a sound economy and an enlightened sanitation demand the purchase 
and killing of all glandered horses at public expense, yet it must 
be allowed that in the dry atmo.sphere of the Northern States, and 
especially in the Rocky Mountain region, glanders is by no means so 
fatal as in Europe. When a state has no systematic method of extinc- 
tion with indemnities and penalties, a horse-owner may claim a right to 
treat his chronic cases, but he can never have a right to expose them on 
the highway or in any public place. They should never be left in the 
same stable with other horses. The unbroken nodules on the skin may 
be treated with iodized phenol or they may be injected with carbolic- 
acid solution ( 1: 200). The open sores may be injected or washed with 
this same or with a solution of permanganate of potash (i: 60). Active 
caustics are sometimes used, such as iodized phenol and strong solutions 



14 

of sulphate of copper or of iron, or chloride of zinc of mercury. Iodo- 
form makes an excellent application. For the nose weaker solutions 
may be used, as mercuric chloride (i : 50CX)). The animal should be 
kept, if possible, in the open air, on a generous diet and with moderate 
exercise. As tonics quinine, sulphate of copper, biniodide of copper, 
nitrate of baryta, arsenic, and strychnine have been given with success. 
Arsenate of strychnine 2 grains daily and bisulphite of soda y, ounce 
thrice a day ma}- be specially conmiended 

hi Man. — In the early stages the inoculation wound should l)e 
cauterized by a white hot iron or electric cauter}' or b}- undiluted 
mineral acid. Ulcers and open sores may be similarly treated, or they 
may be washed with carbolic acid (r : 200), permanganate of potash 
(I : 30), chlorinated water, or mercuric chloride (i : 2000). Erysipela- 
toid swellings may be freely injected with chlorinated water or perman- 
ganate of potash solution, and covered with a compress soaked in the 
same, evaporation being prevented b}- oiled silk or gutta-percha cloth. 
The nose should be treated b}' insufflations of iodoform, by creosote 
water, or by carbolic acid solution. Finally the general health must be 
most carefully attended to, pure air, nourishing food, stimulants, beef 
tea, wines, etc. , the regulation of all the natural functions, and finally 
tonics, such as quinine, iron, arsenate of strychnine, are demanded. 
Fever and other distressing symptoms must be met according to indica- 
tions, though febrile cases are usually fatal. As an accessor}^ the internal 
use of antiseptics, such as sulphites and iodides, is to be commended. 



ANTHRAX 

Pp. 753-7(>2. 



Dkkinition. — Anthrax is an acute infectious disease occurring in 
herl)ivora (cattle, sheep, goats, horses, asses, rabbits, buffalo, deer, elk, 
elephants, camels), and oninivora (swine), and coninuinicable to nearly 
all warm-blooded animals, including man. It is characterized by the 
presence in the diseased tissues or liquids of the bacillus anthracis, by 
enlarged spleen, by delayed oxidation of the blood, by destruction of the 
red blood globules, b)- capillary embolism, by extravasations or exuda- 
tions and by local gangrene. 

Etiology. — The one essential cause of the disease is the entrance 
into the system of the bacillus anthracis or its spores, yet many acces- 
sory conditions are so important that their removal will go far toward 
the local extinction of the malady. 

Soils that preserve the bacillus and spore in a virulent state are dense 
clays, wet soils, undrained deltas, bottomlands and basins, drying ponds 
and lakes, and soil rich in decomposing organic matter and evolving 
ammonia or otherwise neutral or slightly alkaline from the presence of 
lime. In other words, it is such soils as contain food for the bacilli and 
admit onl}- a limited amount of oxygen. When such soils are thor- 
oughly drained and rendered porous and aerated, the bacillus perishes 
or loses its pathogenic property, as it does in sandy or gravelly soils with 
natural drainage. I-'or the same reason thorough cultivation and the 
frequent exposure of an infected soil to the air tends to rob it of its 
virulence. (,)n the other hand, the bacillus retains its potency long in 
the mud of swamps, ponds, lakes, and wells, and will infect through the 
drinking water. 

Season is a potent cause, the dry heats of summer and autumn evapo- 
rating the water and leaving the dust charged with the bacillus to blow 
on the vegetation and thus reach the victim. Sometimes the hard baked 
surface soil imprisons the germ, which escapes after this has been broken 
up by rain. In a wet season, too, the grasses are torn up and the stock 
are infected b}' the bacilli in the earth adherent to the roots. For the 
same reason turnips, beets, and other roots may convey the disease 
through the infected soil adhering to them when eaten. Sometimes a 
heavy rainfall will cause widespread infection, the bacilli being washed 
awa}' into streams, ponds, and other drinking places. 



i6 

The o-raz'fs of anthrax victims are alwaj^s extremely dangerous and 
may become increasingly so when the soil water rises to the surface 
bearing the bacilli. Earth-ivonns also bring the germs to the surface and 
deposit them in the little worm casts, in which they have been demon- 
strated by inoculation and otherwise. Rats and mice may also exhume 
the virus by burrowing into the graves. 

Flies convey the germ from animal or diseased products or carcass to 
animals, especially, the house flies, horse flies, blow flies, etc., which 
suck the blood and infecting liquids and carry the germ on feet or pro- 
boscis or in the intestines and deposit it on other animals, and especially 
on sores. 

Ground bones have been charged with infecting soils, while harness, 
implements, ha}^ straw, and other fodder will convey the disease to 
stock. To feed hay from infected meadows is not so dangerous as to 
pasture them when damp, yet the dust blown on such hay will infect 
animals in midwinter with a temperature at zero. 

Infection direct from the soil is most frequent in late summer and 
autumn, producing enzootic and epizootic outbreaks, while winter cases 
may seem sporadic, yet even these may be numerous and the infection 
may pass through unexpected channels. Thus cats, dogs, and horses 
perish by licking the blood of a defunct ox, and healthy animals suffer 
from following the sick in feeding from the same manger or rack. One 
of the most fruitful causes of anthrax is leaving the bodies of the victims 
in the pastures unburied or only partially buried. Under access of air 
the bacillus forms spores which in a suitable soil or dry condition may 
be preserved indefinitely. Dogs, too, and wild animals devour the car- 
cass, and even if they escape infection they carry it on their jaws and 
legs and sometimes directl}' inoculate it by a bite. 

Fig. 55. 




Threads of bacillus anthracis containing 
spores : X about 1200 diameter. (Abbott.) 

Certain conditions operate on the exposed animal to make it more 
receptive, A hot sun producing a febrile condition and aggravated by 
privation of water, cold rain or snowstorms, lying on the wet or frozen 
earth, eating frosted vegetables, or, indeed, anything that causes chill or 
temporarily low^ers the vitality, will act in this way. Both chicken and 
frog are normally insusceptible, but the chicken succumbs if its body is 



chilled, and the frog if its tem])erature is raised to that of a warm-blooded 
animal. Plethora predisposes, and thus the victims are often animals 
that have been thrivinj:; most ra])idly. Young animals, too, and those 
fresh from a healthy locality are especially susceptible, never having 
been inured to the toxic ])ro(lucts of the bacillus. 

Bacillus Anthracis.— The bacillus anthracis was demonstrated in 
anthrax fluids by Pollender and Brauel in 1S49, but, failing to recognize 
the presence and importance of the spore in infecting liquids from which 
the bacillus was absent, they concluded that this organism was not the 
etiological factor. Davaine, in 1S63, showed that it was the real cause of 
anthrax. 

As propagated in the living animal, the bacillus is a rod 5 to 20 // 
long and i to 1.25 // broad. It stains well with aniline colors and also 
1)3' Gram's method. It is aerobic, yet grows at the bottom of a stab cul- 
ture, and is sterilized by exposure for six or eight hours, in thin layers, to 
full sunshine in free air. It is non-motile, unlike the bacillus subtilus 
and other saprophytes which strongly resemble it morphologically. It 



Fig. 56. 



I' 'ill'' ' ^//^a' 






> b 

Bacillus anthracis : plaited and twisted threads seen in fresh afro\vin<r cultures; 
X about 400 diameters. (Abbott). 

grows readily in ordinary culture media that have a slightly alkaline or 
even a neutral reaction, forming long filaments which in free air pro- 
duce endogenous spores. The.se spores never form in the living tissues 
or fluids, where air is deficient, but they are produced after death on the 
surface of the carcass, on the hair, wool, fur, bri.stles, hides, or on spilt 
blood or infecting discharges. In slighth' acid media and in such as 
contain carbolic acid (i : 1000) spores will not form. The dry spores 
can be jireserved for years without losing any of their virulence. They 
are only destroyed in dry air by three hours' exposure to a temperature 
of 140° C, but in water they perish in ten minutes at a temperature of 
100'' C. The bacilli are killed in ten minutes at 54° C, and in two hours 
in solutions of carbolic acid (i : 300), mercuric chloride (i : 10,000), or 
hydrochloric acid (i : iioo). 



i8 



Prophyi.axis. — Anthrax being an enzootic disease primarily de- 
pendent on the condition of the soil, thorough drainage, and to a less 
extent, culture, are means of preventing the affection. Where infected 
lands cannot be drained they should not be used for pasturage, but 
devoted rather to the raising of crops thai will be cooked before the)' 

Fig. 57. 



' Qrf<:i 



- 00 .t-"^-" 



4) O/ 








Hi»*- 



Anthrax bacilli in the blood of ag,....^^.^ ^^^^ 
alation. (Charcot) 



. „„^ „ .... ,^uinea-pig thirty-six 

hours after iuocul"'"""" "^' •" 



are consumed. The bodies and stalls of the sick shovild be washed with 
an acid solution to prevent the sporulation of the bacillus. Carcasses 
should be left unopened, and the whole surface and air passages treated 
with hydrochloric acid or chloride of lime. Sporulation does not take 
place in the interior of the carcass. The carcass should be burned, 
disintegrated in a mineral acid, or, if buried, it should be conveyed in a 
closed vehicle from which nothing can drop on the way, and the grave 
should be in a fenced place distant from wells, streams, and pastures, 
and in an open, porous sandy or gravelly soil, in which the infection will 
soon disappear. The manure should be burned or saturated with a min- 
eral acid, and not applied to pastures or meadows. Any excretion, 
blood, or other product of the diseased or dead animal should be satu- 
rated with a strong mineral acid or with carbolic acid. The stall where 
the diseased animal has been should be cleansed and thoroughly washed 
with carbolic-acid solution ( i : 300) or mercuric-chloride solution ( i : 500). 
The sick animals must be debarred from common drinking or feeding 
troughs, and from buckets used for other animals, and all dogs, chickens, 



pigeons, and other animals must be carefully excluded from their stalls. 
It need not be added that the sale of their milk, flesh, skins, wool, hair, 
or bristles is to be severely condemned. 

In districts which cannot be drained and rendered wholesome many 
of the youn*( become inured to the poison by receivinu^ the toxic matters 
in small, non-fatal doses in their milk, and later in their food and water, 
and when attacked the disease is mild and they recover. This can be 
availed of artificially in various ways. Thus cattle may be safely inocu- 
lated with the bacillus which has passed several times through guinea- 
pigs or mice. Pasteur cultivated the bacillus in bouillon at 42° C, thus 
preventing sporulation, but then left it twenty days without reseeding on 
a new flask, and found it had become non-fatal to the larger animals. 
It required a longer rest to make it harmless to the small ones. Chau- 
veau and Touissant heated the cultures to 55° C. for one hour, and thus 
rendered them non-fatal to the larger animals. The last two methods 
have been employed for inoculation of many thousands of animals in 
anthrax districts with the effect of giving them inmumity. Among the 
drawbacks to the method is the risk of having the germ assume a greater 
virulence by passing through a young and susceptible subject or one 
with excess of lactic acid in its system as the result of severe muscular 
exertion, and the danger of infecting through the inoculated animals 
dense soils which had not previously harbored the bacillus. It should be 
reserved, therefore, for cattle on land already infected or so porous that 
infection cannot survive in it. 

A safer method was foreshadowed by Touissant in 1880. He filtered 
anthrax fluids and injected the germ-free liquid with the effect of con- 
ferring immunity. Having assured myself of its eflicacy in other self- 
limiting di.seases, I in 1884 applied this to anthrax. Heating the anthrax 
blood or serum to 158° F. for one hour and injecting one drachm 
per head on each of two successive days, I have never failed to arrest 
the disease in a herd of cattle. Chamberlain, Roux, and Hankin have 
lately had ecjual success with toxic products of the cultures. Care must 
of course be taken that the blood has not been allowed to sporulate before 
the heating. 

A new field of therapeutics of this disease in animals is of interest, 
from the hope that some such method may yet prove successful in man. 
Bouchard, Charrin, and Guignard find that rabbits with a fatal dose of 
anthrax are preserved by one or two injections of culture of baci/lus 
pyocyancoiis. Knnnerich, Pawlowsky, and Friedenreich have found the 
same good results from cultures of niicrococcus prodioiosiis, staphylococcus 
pyogenes aureus, or streptococcus erysipelaius, and Woodhead and Wood 
find that the sterilized cultures of these are equally successful. 



20 

ANTHRAX IN MAN ; MALIGNANT PUvSTULE ; INTERNAL 
ANTHRAX. 

Etiology. — Anthrax in man is almost invariably the result of in- 
fection from animals, yet there is no reason why man should not be 
infected directly from soil or water containing the bacillus or spore. 
The common source, however, makes this essentially an industrial dis- 
ease, which attacks employes at rendering works, butchers, tanners, 
workers in leather, rags, w^ool, hair, bristles, hides, bones, hoofs, furs, 
felting works, glue factories, shepherds, cattle men, horsemen, veteri- 
narians, and which appears largely on the uncovered portions of the body 
(face, hands, neck, arms). The local anthrax is especially conveyed to 
man by bloodsucking flies (house flies, bluebottles, mosquitoes), or 
when more direct, it is from hides and other animal products derived 
from anthrax regions (Russia, Armenia, China, South America). Yet 
even in our home products there are many infecting articles, so that 
workers in these products are often exposed. As derived from flesh the 
bacillus perishes in the acid secretion of a healthy stomach, so that it is 
only the spurts that can escape and determine intestinal anthrax. If 
introduced by inhalation, as from dried hides, hair, wool, bristles, and 
rags, it usually develops first in the bronchia and extends later into the 
lung tissue and blood. An occasional infection takes place from man to 
man through lancing the swellings, dressing the sores, or less directly 
through washing the clothes. 

The predisposition to anthrax appears to be less in man than in the 
herbivora, yet a direct inoculation on one who has not already suffered 
is usually infecting. Following its animal origin, the greater number 
of cases occur in the summer and autumn. In man, as in animals, 
the presence of a small quantit}^ of lactic acid greatly enhances the 
virulence of the bacillus, hence the predisposition is enhanced by severe 
muscular exertion with the increased production of sarcolactic acid. 

PATHOI.OGICAI, Anatomy. — This is essentially the same as in the 
animal. The bacillus induces a local non-suppurative inflammation, with 
rapid accumulation of leucocytes, blocking of the capillaries with dark 
non-aerated, distorted blood globules and bacilli, moie or less abundant 
exudation of a gelatinous and bloody fluid, and the supervention of 
coagulation necrosis. There is the same enlargement of the spleen, 
congestion of the liver, venous condition of the blood, rise of tempera- 
ture and pulse, the same capillary embolism and minute extravasations 
in all parts of the body — the same cyanosis, oppressed breathing, coma, 
and death. There is the same black, tarry, comparatively incoagulable 
blood and an unusual tendency to hypostatic discoloration. The cuta- 
neous and pulmonary forms demand a special notice. 

In malignant carbuncle {puslitle) there is the central congested pap- 
ule with its blocked capillaries giving a peculiar dark red shade to the 



21 

lesion, or later there is a mass of necrotic tissue of the same dark color 
and covered hy a black eschar. Around this are more recent papules 
and vesicles with blood-stained contents and a firm base of embollic 
capillaries, multiplying leucocytes, and blood extravsations. Around 
this is an (edematous and phlegmonous infiltration of the skin and sub- 
jacent structures. On secti(.)n the necrotic or phlegmonous nodule is 
seen to extend deeply into the subcutaneous connective tissue with softer 
blood-stained extensions in different directions. Later there are the con- 
current lesions of general infection. 



/ 



\ 



>::* -y 



Malignant pustule : ! ^ >: (>cIkii ; B, vesicular areola ; 
C peripheral infiltratiun ; D, tjudeniatous .skin, (from Charcot). 

In anthrax acdcnia there is a diffuse phlegmonous inflammation with- 
out any central nodule. Capillary embolisms and minute blood extrav- 
asation are present, but are overshadowed by the abundant nedematous 
swelling in the loose connective tissue. The rapidity with which it 
spreads and becomes fatally generalized renders the occurrence of open 
sores a rare condition. It has been seen especially in the eylids, the 
neck, and the forearm, where the connective tissue is abundant and loose 
and poorly supplied with bloodvessels. 

In puhnoiiary atithrax there is intense congestion of the lungs with 
numerous minute blood extravasations into the parenchyma, bronchi, 
and alveoli, with similar i)hlegmonous enlargement and blood-staining 
of the bronchial, mediastinal and inferior cervical glands. By his experi- 
ments in causing guinea-pigs to inhale the spores in steam, lUichner 
showed that the bacillus first propagated itself in the smaller bronchi and 
air cells, and made its way through the epithelial cells by process of 
growth before the lung tissue and blood became infected. Blood-stained 
exudations into the pleura and pericardium are usually present. Pul- 
monary anthrax becomes rapidly generalized ; hence all the concurrent 
lesions of that form are met with. As in all other forms of the disease, 
the presence of the bacillus in the blocked vessels and exudate is char- 



22 

acteristic. In th^ tissues the bacilli are rarely uniformly diffused, but 
aggregated in groups or felted masses. Apart from the primary seat 
of infection, the lymphatic glands usually contain them in the greatest 
numbers. 

Symptoms. — Malignant carbuncle {pustule). — Usually a few days 
after exposure to the infecting material the patient notices a burning 
and itching, and soon there appears a slight, hard, papular elevation 
like a fleabite, but with a very dark red centre, on which a small vesicle 
later appears. In twenty-four or forty-eight hours this has increased 
to half an inch in diameter, is firm, tender, and painful, and the centre 
which has burst or been opened by scratching is gangrenous, brownish 
red or greenish black. This is surrounded by a swollen red or violet 
areola, shading off into blue or 3'ellow, and, if the disease continues to 
extend, by a circle of new vesicles from a hempseed to a pea in size, 
which pass through the same transformations. An cedematous engorge- 
ment extends from the centre, sometimes limited and sometimes includ- 
ing the entire arm or head and neck, and there is distinct enlargement 
and tenderness of the adjacent lymphatic glands. There is always more 
or less constitutional disturbance, headache, pains in the back and limbs, 
weariness, nausea, and, in bad or neglected cases, generalized anthrax 
supervenes. 

In milder cases the slough is separated in connection with the pro- 
cess of suppuration, the sore granulates, and the surrounding swelling 
and general symptoms subside. 

Apart from the virulence of the infecting material, certain conditions 
have much influence in determining the result. The dense and vascular 
tissues of the derma favor an active inflammation and a liberal produc- 
tion of leucocytes, which contest the field with the bacilli hemmed in by 
the dense inflamed tissue around. Then the introduction of the pus 
microbes further antagonizes the bacillus anthracis, and if free suppura- 
tion is established a favorable tissue may be expected. On the other 
hand, if the sore remains dry and the infiltration extends rapidly in 
the connective tissue and lymphatic glands an unfavorable result may 
be dreaded. Yet for the first forty-eight or sixty hours the disease is in 
the main local, and vigorous local treatment may be expected to succeed. 

Anthrax CEdema. — Appearing in loose and comparatively non-vas- 
cular connective tissue, as in the eyelids, neck, or forearm, this shows the 
phlegmonous oedema, without at first much increase in the vascularity 
of the skin, and without the papule, vesicle, and sloughing nodule. Not 
being circumscribed by firm inflamed walls and rapidly multiplying 
leucocytes, it extends with great rapidity and tends to early general 
infection. In the milder cases, however, recovery may ensue, and in 
some instances, vesicles and gangrenous sores may appear. 

Anthracoemia. — As in animals, internal anthrax may go on to an early 
death without any distinct symptoms of localization. There is a sense of 



23 

depression and weariness, restlessness, insomnia, pains in back and limbs, 
and even cold perspiration. With or without these premonitory symp- 
toms there follow chilliness or rigor, nausea, vomiting, headache, great 
prostration, profound mental depression, and anxiety, coldness or numb- 
ness of the limbs, difficult breathing, stupor, coma, and death in forty- 
eight hours or in three days. A dusky or cyanotic condition of the skin 
and mucous membranes, and the appearance of blood in the urine or 
stools or in the nose or eyes, may further identify the affection. 

Intestinal Anthrax. — After eating diseased flesh, sometimes as early 
as after eight hours and at other times after twenty-four or fortj'-eight, 
the patient is affected with chilliness or rigor, abdominal pain, nausea, 
vomiting, bloody diarrhoea, headache, extreme prostration and weak- 
ness, restlessness, difficult breathing, and, in from one to three days, 
stupor, coma, cyanosis, dyspncea, and death. Bleeding from the pharynx 
or mouth is further characteristic. Glandular swelling of the neck with 
infiltration of the connective tissue may also be present. The pulse is 
small and rapid, and the temperature only slightly elevated. External 
localization may accompany this, and iu some cases in which the abdom- 
inal symptoms have been comparatively slight and prolonged an extensive 
external anthrax may later become the most prominent feature. 

Pulmonary Anthrax ( lVool-sorter\% I'Jiscasc). — In this the chest symp- 
toms predominate. There is usually the same general sense of malaise, 
depression, weakness, chilliness, with headache, nausea and perhaps 
vomiting. On auscultation there may be rhonchi and patches of crepita- 
tion. There is an oppression of the breathing altogether dispropor- 
tionate to the appreciable lesions. There is also marked flushing of the 
face amounting perhaps to cyanosis. Cough is present Ijut not violent. 
Sore throat and swelling of the cervical glands may be ]:)resent. The 
prostration becomes extreme, stupor or delirium supervenes, with dys- 
pncea, cyanosis, collapse, and death in from twelve hours to two or even 
five days. These cases are generally fatal, and though they may remit, 
they as constantly relapse. The occupation of the patient, the rapidity 
of the onset, the early extreme prostration and exhaustion, the stupor, 
delirium, cyanosis and collapse serve to identify the disease. The swell- 
ing of the throat and neck, and the bleeding from the pharynx and 
kidneys ma)- also serve for diagnosis. 

Diagnosis. — This must always be made in case of difficulty by a 
microscopic determination of the bacillus with its ciiaracteristic large 
size, immobility, and square ends, and, if need be, by inoculation of a 
rabbit or mouse, which in anthrax will die with the characteristic symp- 
toms in two days. The bacillus may be sought in the vesicle, the 
sloughing indurated centre, the (edematous swelling, t)r the l)loody 
expectoration, urine, or stool. 

Prophylaxis. — In addition to the radical measures laid down for 
animals, the following points are important : Persons with sores on the 



24 

hands, hangnails, etc., should on no account handle animals or men suf- 
fering from anthrax or their products. If this has been done inad- 
vertently, the sores should at once be cauterized with silver nitrate and 
dressed with carbolic acid (i : 300). Workers in tanneries should avoid 
letting the hides come in contact with face, neck, or shoulder, and 
should wash the hands frequently in a solution of mercuric chloride or 
carbolic acid when handling suspected specimens. Wools, hairs, etc., 
from anthrax localities should be laid loosely in a room with steam until 
damp throughout, and then subjected to strong fumes of burning sul- 
phur for twelve hours. Those who handle the articles prior to disinfec- 
tion should wear respirators of cotton wool which ma}' be disinfected 
by heat. The sale of anthrax hides, wool, etc., should be interdicted 
unless they have undergone a thorough disinfection under official super- 
vision. Marketing the flesh or dair}' products of even mild cases of 
anthrax should be forbidden by law, and guarded against by the strictest 
inspection in stock yards, in municipal abattoirs, etc. A diffusion of 
information as to the nature and danger of anthrax is a most essential 
precaution, and in anthrax districts and in factories likely to use 
anthrax products antiseptics such as carbolic acid solutions should be 
always at hand. 

Treatment. — The most essential thing in external anthrax is the 
thorough destruction of the local affection. In the initial stage with 
only the dark red spot or papule the complete destruction of this with 
a red-hot needle is effective. In more advanced cases with a hard 
nodule and oedema the surface may be sponged with a 10 per cent, 
solution of carbolic acid, and the hard part excised with as much of the 
surrounding oedema as can be safely reached. The wound may then be 
filled with surgical cotton soaked in the same solution and the skin 
brushed over with the same lotion. In the more advanced cases and in 
anthrax oedema so extensive as to forbid complete excision the whole 
affected area must be filled with the carbolic injection by means of a 
hypodermic syringe passed into all parts in succession and emptied as 
it is being withdrawn. The surface may be covered with cloths wet in 
mercuric chloride solution (i : 500) and by an ice bag. Enlarged lym- 
phatic glands may be excised and the wound treated with the carbolic 
acid lotion. If the edges of a wound continue to rise, a thorough 
cauterization should be repeated. 

In internal or general infection resort is had to quinine 10 grains 
and carbolic acid 7 grains four times a day ; to large and frequent doses 
of tincture of muriate of iron, 20 drops every four hours ; and to stimu- 
lants. In the earliest stages attention should be directed toward local 
destruction of the bacillus. If anthrax flesh has been eaten, an active 
emetic may be followed by carbolic acid and perhaps pyoktanin ; in 
cases of inhaled spores the breathing of carbolic acid and fumes of 
burning sulphur will be especially indicated. 



25 

Finally, a resort may be had to one or other of the bacteria that have 
been so successful experimentally in the lower animals. A pure culture 
of the pneumococcus of Friedlander, the bacillus pyocyaneus, or of the 
staphylococcus pyogenes aureus, thoroughly sterilized by heat and in- 
jected subcutaneously (and in intestinal anthrax swallowed), may assist 
materially in arresting the disease. vSimilar injections might be made 
into the peritoneum in intestinal anthrax, into the trachea and pleurie in 
the pulmonary form, and into the oedematous swelling in the external. 



RABIES. 

Pp- 763-773- 



Synonyms. — Hydrophobia ; Canine madness. 

Definition. — Rabies is an acute febrile disease, propagated by inoc- 
ulation only, and characterized by a prolonged incubation, followed by 
an access of fever and of nervous disorders of a characteristic type. 
The habits become unnatural and depraved, the temper irritable and 
uncontrollable, reflex excitability extremely exaggerated, visual illusions 
and hallucinations are developed, and spasms and paralyses of the muscles 
set in. If neglected it is almost invariably fatal. 

Animals Susceptible. — The disease is most common in the canine races 
(dogs, wolves, foxes, jackals, hyenas, etc.,) and in felines (cats, lions), 
partly because of innate susceptibility, and largely because of their tend- 
ency to bite and get bitten and inoculated. Warm-blooded animals, 
however, appear to be universally susceptible or nearly so — cattle, sheep, 
goats, deer, horses, asses, mules, badgers, apes, rabbits, rats, mice, chick- 
ens, pigeons, etc., furnishing victims. Skunks not only suffer, but from 
their fearlessness and disposition to bite on the sly are very effective as 
propagators of the infection. Man suffers from the bites of mad dogs, 
cats, and, less frequently, from wolves and skunks. All genera are not 
equally susceptible, and some, like apes, hens, and sheep, reduce the 
potency of the virus passed through them. 

EtioIvOGy. — There is only one cause — namel}', inoculation from an 
animal suffering from the disease It may be assumed that the virulent 
principle is an organized germ, but so far all attempts to isolate and 
cultivate it in a pure culture have manifestly failed. Pasteur and Fol 
found in the nerve centers of rabid dogs micrococci 0.02// in diameter, 
and often joined in pairs. Rivolta found streptococci of four or five 
elements, and Babes found a coccus 0.5/v to 0,8//, which he cultivated 
in blood serum or gelatinized bouillon at 37° C, and inoculated in the 
brain successfully in some cases, but mostly without success. After 
the second or third generation it proved non-pathogenic. Dowdswell, 
Mottet, and Protopopoff have also investigated the subject, but, though 
the last two claim to have produced typical rabies by their cultures, the 
microbe cannot yet be certainly identified. 

All indications, however, show that the rnateries morbi is a microbe. 
The inoculation of the smallest particle of virulent saliva or brain 



matter produces a fatal general disorder in which the infection is multi- 
plied and pervades all organs and liquids of the body. The long period 
of incubation is incompatible with poisoning by a chemical agent, which 
would operate promptly if at all, and be eliminated long before the 
rabies sets in. Ra])ies agrees with all other germ diseases in developing 
only after inoculation, in that one attack usually protects against a 
second, and that it never appears for the first time in a country from 
which mad dogs are excluded (Australia, Tasmania, New Zealand, St. 
Helena, South Africa, West Africa, the Hebrides, the Azores), whilst it 
does continue and become permanent in localties previously free, but 
into which infected dogs have been brought (Buenos Ayres, Malta, 
Hong-Kong). 

In spite of ])opular prejudice, al)use, neglect, privation, and season 
have no effect in generating rabies, though they may increase suscepti- 
bility. It is probably hopeless to eradicate the dread of the dog star and 
the dog days, but statistics show a steady rise of cases of rabies in early 
spring, before the advent of the hot sunmier months. Thus, Bouley had 
755 cases in December, January, and February ; 857 in March, April and 
May ; 788 in June, July, and August ; and 696 in September, October, 
and November. The real explanation of the extra prevalence in spring 
and early summer is found in the fact that the bitches rut in spring, and 
the numerous candidates for their favors bite each other fatally. This 
is aggravated by the fact that the generative instinct is stimulated in 
the early stages of rabies, so that any developing cases are likely to 
follow a rutting bitch. This further explains the predominance of rabies 
in males (1746 males to 244 females), the irritable rabid dog antagoniz- 
ing his male competitors and respecting the female object of their common 
desire. The suppre.ssion of the generative desire, invoked as causing 
rabies dc novo, only develops it in infected countries and in animals 
already bearing the germ, never in countries where rabies did not pre- 
viously exist. The excitement will hasten the eruption in the inoculated 
animal, but will never develop the disease dc novo. The bite of the dog 
in a violent passion or under any other form of excitement is not rabific 
unless he has himself been bitten and is mad. The same is true of the 
skunk. Its teeth may be infected from eating carrion and produce 
septicLX?mia, but, unless in limited districts where skunks have been 
infected with rabies, the bite will not prove rabific, 

Hroad generalizations show the impossibility of spontaneous cases 
of rabies. The absence of the disease in islands in the Elbe while 
rabies was epizootic on both banks ; its absence for centuries from the 
Hebrides and Malta, each with its special breed of dogs, though con- 
stantly present on the mainland ; and its prompt disappearance from 
lierlin, I^ldena, and other cities when all dogs were strictly muzzled, — 
sufficiently prove the absence of any cause save infection. What never 
occurred in the past need not to be looked for in future. Cases in 



28 

which infection is denied because the dog was shut up will be explained 
by a more thorough investigation. Rabid dogs will leap high fences 
to reach a supposed enemy, and rabid rats and other vermin enter through 
small holes. 

Rabies like most microbian diseases is at first confined to the region 
of the bite, and the tissues there alone are infecting. When fully 
developed the infection is resident in the blood and all vascular tissues, 
yet the usual source of infection is through the bronchial mucus and the 
saliva, both of which are especially virulent and are naturally implanted 
by the teeth. This virulence is not confined to carnivora, but has been 
experimentally demonstrated in omnivora and herbivora as well, and 
may be inferred for birds. Various cases of infection from man to man 
are on record. Drying of the saliva or blood apart from heat or putre- 
faction does not destroy its virulence, and knives fouled on rabid animals 
have been used for successful inoculation months and years later. 

Among other methods of infection besides the bite may be named 
the licking of a sore by a dog in the early stages of rabies and the 
occupation of kennels or stalls that have previously harbored rabid 
animals. Rabies has been known to attack a second pack of hounds 
after the first pack had been killed out because of the disease, and the 
onl)^ way to prevent this is by a thorough disinfection or destruction of 
the kennels. The mangers and feeding dishes charged with expectora- 
tion and saliva are pre-eminently dangerous. In one case a man was 
infected by using his teeth to untie a knot in a rope that had been used 
to tie a mad dog. 

Infection in man has been caused by a bite from a dog that had been 
previously fighting a rabid dog, and again from the scratch of a cat that 
had been licking its claws. Again, as recoveries are not unknown 
(though ver}' rare), and as dogs may be immunized by inoculation, it 
follows that a dog ma}^ conmiunicate the disease without itself showing 
any symptom. In some cases of incipient rabies in dogs the saliva has 
been virulent before any outward symptoms were shown ; hence all 
dogs, however sound in appearance, are objects of suspicion in an infected 
district. 

Bollinger suggests the possibilit}^ of infection by fleas and lice which 
have lived on the rabid dog and sucked its blood. 

No case of infection through milk or semen has been proved. The 
percentage of those bitten by rabid animals that contract rabies is 
greater in animals than in man, because the bites in man are mainly made 
through clothing, which cleans the teeth of the virus before they reach 
the skin. Even in man this distinction holds, since the bites of wolves 
and hounds, that fly at the face and throat, are far more fatal than those 
of dogs on the clothed parts of the body. Bites on the face, too, as 
being nearer to the brain, the seat of the election of the affection, pro- 
duce the disease earlier and with greater certainty. Bouley found that 



29 

90 ])er cent, suffered after bites on the face, 63 per cent, after bites on 
the hands, 24 per cent, after Ijites on the arms, 7 per cent, after bites on 
the legs, and 63 per cent, after (mostly multiple) bites on the body. Of 
dogs 49.7 per cent, suffered, of cattle 61.6 per cent., and of sheep 42 
per cent. The susceptibility of sheep is known to be slight, and the 
teeth are more likely to be cleansed on their wool. Much, however, 
depends on the stage of the di.sease and the abundance and virulence of 
the virus in the saliva as well as upon the su.sceptibility of the subject. 
Some are insusceptible either naturally or by reason of their having 
been ])reviously subjected to the products of the germ, yet under a full 
virulent dose nearly all succumb. 

PaThoIvOGICAI^ An.'VTomv. — The macroscopic lesions of rabies are 
somewhat obscure. Taken, however, with the microscopic appearances 
and the symptoms shown in life, identification of the disease is not 
usuall}' difficult. 

In (Uiiffia/s ihere is emaciation, mucus about the eyes, mouth, nostril, 
and prepuce, staring coat, venous congestion, and livid nmcosse. The 
tongue has a dirt}' brown fur, the pharynx is often red and congested ; in 
cattle I have seen the vocal chords ulcerated. In the dog foreign bodies 
such as straws, hairs, pieces of wood or clothing, may be found in the 
mouth or pharynx. The phar3-ngeal lymphatic glands are usually dark 
from blood engorgement and extravasation. The salivary glands are 
grayish red and collections of lymphoid cells may be found around their 
follicles. The gullet contains grayish tenacious mucus and sometimes 
traces of foreign bodies. The stomach is congested and contracted. In 
the dog it contains no food, but a mixture of foreign bodies and indiges- 
tible substances which are highly characteristic of the disease — hair, 
straw, wood, coal, bits of leather, cloth, dirt, grass, and stones, bespeak- 
ing the depraved appetite during life. The mucosa is brownish red or 
dee])ly congested in parts, with petechi^e and even ulcers. A yellow 
viscid mucus covers it at points. The small and sometimes the large 
intestine, with little or no inge.sta, may contain masses of foreign bodies 
and 1)ile-stained mucus. The liver is congested with a black tarry blood, 
and its cells are the seat of granular degeneration. The mediastinal 
glands are congested, the kidne3's hyjieryemic, and the bladder contracted 
and empty or holding only a little yellow, turbid, albuminous urine. 
The bronchia may l)e slightl}- congested and occasionally enclose foreign 
bodies, and the lungs are the seat of venous congestion, but of no other 
marked change. 

On removal of the calvarium the cerebral meninges are found 
hypera;mic, the sinuses gorged with dark blood, with minute extravasa- 
tions and thickening of the membranes due to interstitial fibrinous exu- 
date and cell production. The epithelium of the central cerebro-spinal 
canal may be increased, and at points broken down and rejilaced by l)lood 
or granular or hyaline masses. In the gray matter around and on the 



30 

floor of the canal may be found minute hemorrhages, which under the 
microscope are found to correspond to thrombosis of a capillary with 
leucocytes or a hyaline piomented mass. Such points found in the gray 
matter of the spinal cord and bulb and in connection with the motor 
centres are characterized bj' the accumulation of lymphoid cells in all 
the coats of the vessels and" in the perivascular lymph space, along with 
granular and hyaline matter. Babes and Mikailescu further describe 
changes in the nerve cells, with cloudiness of the protoplasm, with vacu- 
oles, and in the nucleus karyokinesis. These have been especially 
noticed in connection with the motor centres in the medulla oblongata 
and spinalis, but also in the gray matter of the cerebrum. The nervous 
trunks, too, may 1)e the seat of congestion and the fibres undergoing 
granular degeneration. In one case Eichhorn found the nerve filaments 
in the seat of the infection wound materially thickened and indurated. 
This, however, like the occasional redness and congestion in the seat of 
the cicatrix, is by no means constant. Indications point to the conclu- 
sion that the infection extends from the infection wound largely along 
the nerves. There is the long period of incubation, longer when the 
bites are in the lower limbs, shorter for the arms, and still shorter for 
the head ; there is the special virulence of the nerves, said to be highest 
in those of the bitten member (Bardach); and there is the assertion that 
after inoculation in the sciatic nerve the infectiousness of the spinal cord 
is found to progress gradually from behind forward (Di Vestra and 
Zagari). Why paralysis should not develop in the nerves first affected, 
before the cerebral symptoms -set in, does not appear. 

The lesions to be specially relied on in both man and animals are the 
congestion in the fauces and throat, the congested, infiltrated, or ulcer- 
ated state of the stomach, the absence of food, bvit the presence in the dog 
of foreign bodies and in man of mucus and a debris like coffee-grounds, 
some congestion of the small intestines, of liver and kidneys, an empty 
or nearly empty bladder with congested mucosa, miicous or muco-puru- 
lent oozing from the various mucous openings, venous congestion and 
infarctions of the lungs, a black, tarry blood, congestion of the super- 
ficial veins, and the congestion of the brain and meninges, with capillary 
embolisms and minute centres of trophic change. These, with the his- 
tory of the case, are usually sufficient to identif}- the disease. It should 
be added, however, that in the paralytic and lethargic forms in the dog 
there may be an entire absence of foreign bodies in the stomach. 

Symptoms. — In the Dog. — Incubation in case of inoculation with 
potent virus on the brain is six days ; in other parts it varies from sixteen 
to two hundred and forty, with an average of twenty-five days. 

Prodromata, which last one to three days, consist in some marked 
change of habits, with usually restlessness, frequent changing of position, 
sullenness and irascibility. In other cases the dogs are more confiding 
and fawning and liable to infect by licking their master or others. There 



31 

may be dullness and apathy, 1)ut more frequently there is a hyper- 
a;isthesia, the dog starting at the slightest noise and crouching as in fear. 
A tendency to pick up and swallow foreign bodies, like hair, straws, 
thread, paper, pins, pebbles, dung, dirt, etc., is highly characteristic 
excepting in ])U])pies, which do this in mere wantonness. The victims 
eagerly lick cold, smooth objects, as stones, metal, boots, or the nose or 
genitals of another dog. Sexual excitement and manifest desire for coition 
are marked. Sudden passion when shown another dog or cat, sudden 
starting and jumping toward the door, a seeking of darkness and seclu- 
sion, and a disposition to leave home and wander away many miles are 
most significant. The dog will shrink from a blow, yet bear it without a 
whine, and yet will bark or howl without cause when alone ; the sound 
is a hoarse, low, muffled one, beginning as a bark and prolonged into a 
howl, and repeated two or three times in lower tone without closing the 
mouth. He may tear wood or clothes to pieces, may rub the chops with 
his paws as if something were in the mouth, may turn the eyes and head 
as if following some object, and presently snap at it ; he may vomit a 
bloody material, and he may lick or even gnaw the inoculation wound, 
which is now liable to become congested, though cicatrized weeks before. 
The conjunctivic are reddened and the skin of the face drawn into 
wrinkles. These ])remonitory sym})toms are the most important ones, 
since, if the}' are recognized, the animal may be shut up before he can 
do any injury to man. 

In its subsequent course the malady divides itself into three t3''pical 
forms — Xh^/iirioiis, the paralytic, and the lethargic. The first of these 
is most common in the less domesticated dogs, while the latter are seen 
especially in house and pet dogs. 

'T\\ii/itrious/or))i is shown by paroxysms of violence, during which 
the animal attempts to escape, gnawing at his chain or the doorposts, 
howling more frequently, trying to bite any creature that annoys him, 
and even showing a mischievous disposition to attack without provoca- 
tion. Former human or animal friends are no longer respected, though 
at fir.st a reluctant obedience may be given to a loved master. If free, 
the animal may wander off ten or twent}' miles, attacking any one in 
his wa}^, especiall}' if he makes noise or disturbance, swinmiing rivers, 
for he has no dread of water, and after the paroxysm he ma}- return 
home, fawning upon, licking, or even suddenly biting his friends. In 
this remission he seeks quiet, seclusion, and darkness, until a second 
paroxysm rouses him to violent effort. But he may be roused at any 
moment by threatening him with stick or whip, and above all, by pre- 
senting to him another dog or cat. In such cases he may tear at a stick 
or iron bar until his teeth are dislocated and the gums bleed freely. He 
will even at times bite himself, tearing hair or skin from fore limbs or 
shoulders, and gnawing the tail, toes, or other part of the body. Food is 
rejected, or if swallowed may be vomited. The eyes squint or the 



32 

dilated pupils give them a peculiar staring appearance as they follow 
imaginary objects. 

Twitchings of the muscles of the face or general convulsions may 
come on. In two or three days the power of the hind limbs is graduall}- 
lost, the hind parts first swaying unsteadily, and finally resting helplessly 
upon the ground, while the animal still raises himself on his fore limbs. 
The jaw drops from paralysis, saliva drivels from the mouth, and there 
is no longer danger of biting. Gradually the paralysis extends to the 
whole bod}-, and unless interrupted by convulsions this lasts until death 
on the sixth or eighth (exceptionally the tenth day) from the first 
symptoms. 

1\\ paralytic {dumb) rabies the paralytic stage supervenes at once on 
the prodromata. The symptoms therefore are essentially those of the 
culminating stage of the furious form. 

In lethargic rabies there is neither fury nor at first paralysis, but the 
animal after the prodromata passes into a condition of lethargy, and 
remains curled up in a corner, not to be disturbed by threats, punish- 
ment, or coaxing ; food and drink are alike refused, and the animal 
drowses along until relieved by death from the tenth to the fifteenth 
day. 

Besides these three forms there are all intervening grades in which 
one or other of the specific types tends to predominate. 

In other Carnivora. — Wolves, foxes, jackals, and badgers, overcoming 
their natural fear, enter villages and cities and bite men and animals 
after the fashion of the rabid dog. Wolves are especiall)^ dangerous 
because of their strength and ferocity and their disposition to seize on 
the uncovered throat and face. Rabid cats are more retiring, yet easily 
roused to violence, and use teeth and claws indiscriminately, producing 
infecting wounds with both. The voice is altered and hoarse, like that 
made in rut In all these animals, as in the dog, the violent symptoms 
merge into the paralytic prior to death. 

Symptoms in Man. — Incubation is said to be extremely variable 
in man. In 6 per cent, of all cases it is between three and eighteen 
days, in 64 per cent, it is between eighteen and sixty-four days, while 
in 34 per cent, it exceeds sixty days. From fourteen days to two or 
three months may be said to be the limits. Recorded cases of incuba- 
tion extending from one to seven years cannot be accepted without the 
evidence of successful inoculation upon an animal. So frequent in man 
are cases induced by an overw^orked imagination (lyssophobia ) that the 
very short and very long incubations are to be suspected of belonging 
to this category until they shall be proved genuine by inoculation on an 
animal, in which the explanation of a too vivid imagination is inadmis- 
sible. No such protracted incubation is met with in any of the lower 
animals. 

At the conclusion of the latent stage the first symptom is usually an 



itching, prickiiit;, or pain in the seat of the infection wound, which, 
thouj^h completely healed over, now again becomes congested or swollen. 
Touching the scar may produce an aura extending toward the body, 
sighing, or tremor. There ma}' be chilliness, headache, weariness, 
de])ression, sullenness, irrital)ility, irascibility, and ungovernable restless- 
ness which impels to constant or frecjuent movement. There is insom- 
nia or broken sleep with frightful dreams, increasing mental anxiety, 
sensitiveness even to a current of cold air, and much more to sudden 
flashes of sunshine, noises, and movements. A tendency to spasms in 
the throat is shown in increasingly difficult jerking articulations, and 
some difficulty in sw^allowing liquids which cause a sense of fulness of 
the throat and dread of water. The fauces and pharynx are now con- 
gested and reddened, as are also the eyes and usually the face. The 
pulse is somewhat accelerated and hard, but usually small. Breathing 
is oppressed and accompanied by sighing or sobbing. The mind is clear. 

In some cases the malady sets in at once in full severity. The 
patient is suddenly and unexpectedly seized with spasms of the throat 
and chest, usually when attempting to drink or when abruptly startled. 
These are .so violent that for the time they threaten suffocation, and from 
that time on the dread of water is extreme. The sight of a liquid, the 
sound of it dropping or flowing, the offer of drink, the sight of a smooth 
surface like glass, will bring on a violent paroxysm. There is not only 
the feeling of impending suffocation, but a sense of rising of the stom- 
ach, with actual retching and vomiting, and a convulsive cough or 
scream which has been likened to a bark. In the absence of drink a 
paroxysm may come on in which the predominant sensation is the 
oppression about the chest and stomach. In all such attacks the face is 
red, drawn, and distorted, the nostrils and pupils dilated, eyes projected 
and reddened, and the expression agonized. There are tremors and 
convulsive contractions of the muscles of the limbs and trunk. The 
hyper^esthesia is intense, the senses become painfully acute, a bright 
light, a sound, even of talking, or a slight touch being intolerable. 
Even in the intervals this continues, and, unless all exciting sights, 
sounds, or touches can be obviated, another paroxysm is precipitated. 
The tendency is, however, to a progressive increase of the violence of 
the paroxysms and decrease in the duration of the intervals, until the 
patient becomes worn out. 

A remarkable and dangerous feature, which like dread of water is 
peculiar to man, is the spitting out on all sides of the saliva, which can 
no longer be swallowed. For a length of time the mind is clear, but at 
the height of the disease the paroxysms merge into fits of mania. The 
patient charges those about him with having caused his sufferings, and 
assaults with hands, feet, or teeth any one who approaches. Restraint 
aggravates this and prolongs the attack. When the paroxysms subside, 
reason resumes its throne, and the patient is profuse with regrets, apol- 



34 

ogies, and warnings for the fnture. Deatli often takes place from 
asphyxia or apoplexy during a paroxysm, and at times suddenly after 
symptoms of material improvement. The parox3'sms vary in length 
from a half to one hour, and the intervals from a few minutes to several 
hours. Paroxysms are more violent in the strong and vigorous, in men 
than in women and children. 

Should the patient survive the violent stage, paralysis sets in. The 
spasms become feebler and finally cease, the breathing is relieved, the 
hyperiesthesia lessened, and deglutition may again become possible. 
But debility and prostration increase, twitching of the muscles is seen, 
the lower jaw drops and saliva flows from the mouth. The breathing 
becomes rapid and rattling, the voice weak and harsh, the pulse small, 
rapid, and irregular ; stupor comes on and death ensues, preceded by a 
state of coma. In exceptional cases the paroxysmal stage is almost or 
altogether omitted. 

The entire duration of the disease in man is from two to four days, 
exceptional cases being less or more. 

Diagnosis. — The diagnosis of the disease is not usually difficult if 
one finds the history of a bite, the recently healed wound, the intense 
hypersesthesia which serves to distinguish it from mania, spasmodic sore 
throat, epilepsy, and hysteria, and the absence of trismus, which dis- 
tinguishes it from tetanus. The greatest difficulty is with cases of lysso- 
phobia, but in these, as in hysteria, the patient usualU}^ fails from imper- 
fect acquaintance with the essential symptoms, and cannot get up 
artificially that extraordinary hypertesthesia which is so pathognomonic 
of hydrophobia. Moreover, in nearly all these cases investigation will 
show a flaw in the history : the animal that bit may be still alive or its 
death may be uncertain, or it ma}- have been killed by an excited com- 
munity, or the incubation may have been too short or too long to admit 
the probability of hydrophobia. An investigation of this history is 
always in order, and unless there have been cases of rabies in the lower 
animals from bites made by the animal suspected, it may be opined that 
the human patient is a victim of lyssophobia and to be cured by moral 
suasion alone. 

PROPHYI.AXIS OF RABIES AND HYDROPHOBIA. — The evidence is 
overwhelming that rabies is alwa3^s the result of inoculation from a rabid 
animal or a hydrophobic man ; therefore it is not only possible, but a 
duty incumbent on every country, to stamp the disease out of existence. 
Each state should enact and rigorously enforce a law with measures 
like the following : i. Register all dogs and tax them heavily ; 2. Have 
every dog wear a collar bearing a plate inscribed with its owner's name 
and residence ; let all dogs appearing without such badge be summarily 
shot by the police or constables ; 3. Let every dog be muzzled in cities 
and counties that have furnished cases of rabies within a year, and in 
adjoining counties ; let all dogs found at large unmuzzled be at once 



35 

shot b}- the i)olice ; 4. Dogs and cats bitten or supposed to have been 
bitten by rabid animals must be promptly killed or shut up in iron cages 
for six months udder veterinary supervision ; 5. Dogs or cats which have 
.bitten men and are believed to be rabid should not be killed, but shut 
up in iron cages under veterinary supervision ; if they do not develop 
rabies, it will be easy by the sight of the healthy animal to protect the 
bitten person against /yssof)fiohia ; 6. Dogs imported from countries 
other than those from which rabies is excluded (Australasia, etc.,) must 
be subjected to a quarantine of six months before they ma}- be set at lib- 
erty ; 7. Foxes, wolves, badgers, martins, skunks, and other vermin that 
use the teeth as offensive weapons must be destroyed by poison or other- 
wise in districts infected with rabies ; 8. The disinfection of kennels and 
other buildings where rabid dogs or other animals have been must be 
carefully carried out ; 9. All owners of dogs should be furnished with a 
circular giving the premonitory symptoms of rabies, and enjoining them 
to shut up and report any dog showing such symptoms. 

The methods of immuuizing dogs against rabies are so closely asso- 
ciated with the Pasteurian treatment of the bitten that they will 1)e best 
considered together. 

Treatment OF Rabiks and Hydrophobia. — 'T\\e. treatinent of the 
bite should receive first attention. If caustics are not at hand, the first 
effort must be to prevent absorption of the poison. If a limb has been 
bitten, a cord or handkerchief ma}- be tied round above the wound and 
a stick passed tlirough it and twisted until circulation has been arrested. 
The wound may then be sucked either through a tube or, if the patient 
can reach it, with the lips, the mouth being washed frequently with car- 
bolic acid or other antiseptic lotion. Steeping the wound in warm water 
and wringing it is good as a temporary resort. Drinking of liquids to 
excess temporarily hinders absorption. As soon as a caustic can be 
obtained it should be applied thoroughly to all parts of the wound. An 
iron skewer, nail, or poker at a white heat should be brought in contact 
with all parts of the wound, and, as the teeth have often met in the flesh, 
it is usually necessary to pass it clear through between the two external 
wounds. If chloride of zinc, caustic potash, nitrate of silver, or sulphate 
of copper or iron is the available caustic, the greatest care must be taken 
to apply it thoroughly to all recesses of the wound, any fibrous tissue 
that prevents this being cut through. If mineral acids or other liquid 
caustics are employed, they may be delivered in the utmost recesses 
through a pipette or on a pledget of cotton on a staff. When available 
the galvano-cautery is to be preferred. The parts should be washed 
with a strong solution of mercuric chloride. Not until the cauterization 
has been complete should the tourniquet be removed. A delay of several 
hours or days is no warrant for omitting cauterization. It has always a 
good moral effect in preventing /yssop/iodia, and as it is almost certain 
that part of the poison, which is for a time confined to the region of the 



36 

sore, is the dangerous portion, it may still be possible to prevent the 
disease. Senn's advice to excise the adjacent tissues may here be fol- 
lowed, but not to the exclusion of a thorough disinfection. In a very 
badly mangled limb the only reasonable hope may be in amputation. 

In the same line of prophylactic treatment after the bite is the now 
famous Pasteur method. Rabbits are inoculated on the brain, one from 
the other, until the disease develops six or seven days after inoculation, 
the virus having attained to its highest potency. The rabbit infected 
with this potency is killed, and aseptic sections of its spinal cord are 
preserved /;/ vitro, in free but aseptic air, dried by contact with caustic 
potassa, for periods varying from one to thirteen days. The virulence 
lessens from day to day, so that the i3tli-day product can be inoculated 
with perfect safety. The treatment of a bitten person or dog is con- 
ducted by giving hypodermically, on the first day, four 2-gramme doses 
of solutions of the 13th, I2tli, nth, and loth day cords ; on the second 
day, four of the loth, 9th, 8tli, and 7th ; on the third day, four of the 
7th, 6th, 5th, and 4th ; on the fourth day, two i ^2-gramme doses of the 
4th and 3d ; on the fifth day, two of the 3d and 2d ; on the sixth day, 
two 2-gramme doses of the 8th and 7th ; on the seventh day, two doses 
of the 7th and 6th ; on the eighth day, two doses of the 6th and 5th ; on 
the ninth day, two doses of the 5th and 4th ; and on the tenth day, two 
i>^-gramme doses of tlie 4th and 3d. With two intermissions, on the 
eleventh and seventeenth days, this is continued until the twenty -sixth 
day. The best evidence of its efficiency is the fact that in selected cases 
but 0.54 per cent, of persons bitten and so treated have contracted 
hydrophobia. 

To immunize a healthy subject it is sufficient to give but one dose 
daily, beginning with the cord thirteen days old, and leaving off wnth 
that, of the first day. As a remedial agent for the bitten this is unques- 
tionably effective; and has already saved many lives. The objections to 
it are that it is not aimed at an extinction of the disease, which is the 
rational course with a pure contagium. It necessitates, on the contrary, 
a maintenance of the malady for the supply of material. It may also 
be questioned whether the use of the method, both for curative purposes 
and immunization, and the setting at liberty of many individuals just 
injected with the most potent virus known, may not introduce the risk of 
the conveyance of that germ to others. 

Some attempts have been made to escape this last objection. In 
1886, I sterilized with heat portions of the spinal cord of a man dead 
of hydrophobia, and making an aqueous emulsion of the same gave two 
rabbits three and one rabbit four hypodermic injections of a drachm 
each on as many successive days. I afterward inoculated them with 
infecting nervous substance, yet all survived for nine months, while 
three control rabbits inoculated with the unsterilized nervous substance 
died rabid. 



37 

Ti/.zoni and vSchwarz, lindiiijj; lliat the blood seruiii of an immunized 
rabbit sterilized a rabic spinal cord /;/ 7'ihv in five hours, tested this 
immunized blood serum on living animals and found that it conferred 
immunity in the majority of cases. This experiment aimed at securing 
the antitoxin from another animal, and while it might act temporarily 
as an immunizing agent and satisfactorily as a curative one when given 
in large doses, yet as it could not reproduce itself in the animal economy, 
it must soon be eliminated and the immunity lost. INIy experiment, on 
the ct)ntrary, aimed at the introduction of the toxic products so as to 
stimulate the leucocytes and perhaps other cells to a production of the 
defensive materials which would be continued after the ptomaines and 
toxins have been eliminated. I had already had a successful experience 
with this method in hog cholera, lung plague, and anthrax, and the 
favorable results with rabies were therefore to be expected. All such 
methods, however, should be stopped when a systematic attempt is made 
for the extinction of the disease. 

Fernandez appears to show by extensive statistics and numerous 
experiments that dogs bitten by vipers are proof against rabies. This 
would suggest the sterilized poi.son of vipers as a means of immunization. 

All the functions of the bitten person should be maintained in a 
healthy condition. When possible he should be kept in ignorance of his 
danger and of the nature of the disease should it develop. He should 
be among calm, cheerful people, who will never refer to the matter nor 
allow the subject to see that they are any way anxious. If the matter 
does come up, full confidence in the protective measures adopted should 
be claimed. Every cause of excitement should be avoided. 

When the disease has developed, the patient must be kept in perfect 
seclu.sion, quiet, and darkness, and out of currents of air. Antispas- 
modics and nerve sedatives may be given by the rectum, hypodermi- 
cally, or by inhalation to relieve the sufferings, though there is little 
hope of their obviating a fatal result. Agents like chloroform, chloral, 
and the bromides, which lessen cerebral congestion, are on that account 
to be preferred. As a therapeutic agent the blood serum of strongly 
immunized rabbits would hold out more hope than anything known, yet 
it is doubtful how far this can be relied upon when the disease is 
already developed. In undeveloped cases approaching the end of incu- 
bation this might be employed in connection with the intensive inocula- 
tion of Pasteur. 



ACTINOMYCOSIS. 

Pp- 775-7^4- 



Definition. — A chronic infectious disease of man and animals, 
induced by the growth in the tissues of actinomyces (ray fungus), and 
usually manifested by hyperplastic swellings resembling sarcomata. 

Animals Susceptible. — It occurs casually in herbivora and omnivora 
— cattle, swine, horses, and elephants — and in the human being, and 
ver\" exceptionally in the dog. Experimentally, it has been produced 
in a number of genera, including rabbits, guinea-pigs, dogs, cats, sheep, 
and goats. It is probabl}^ a question of exposure, as the dog is easily 
infected, and cultures from the dog on artificial media grow with great 
vigor. 

RTioi<OGY. — The essential cause is the implanting of the actinomy- 
ces in the tissues, hard (tooth, bone) or soft (connective tissue, muscle, 
parenchyma). 

Among accessory causes caries and fractures of the teeth, and the 
exposure of raw surfaces on the gums and alveolae in connection with 
the shedding of the teeth, are prominent factors. The alveolae of the 
tonsils, the ducts of salivary and other glands, raw sores, wounds, run- 
ning abscesses, and fistulae afford a lodgment for the cryptogam and an 
opportunity for development. The germ may enter through a proto- 
plasmic cell into the 13'mph spaces and form a primary focus in the 
lymph gland, but this is exceptional. Barley awns from their imbricated 
surface work their way readily into soft tissues and afford starting points 
for infection. Glumes of barley and other cereals, wheat bran, and 
other vegetable products have often been found in the tonsillar cavities, 
gums, etc., (Johne, Piana, Korsak), and on the tongue (Bodamer), along 
with the parasite. Jensen found the parasite growing on rye, and L,ieb- 
mann, who inoculated it on grains, found that it started growth with the 
germination of the seed, and, growing with great energy, pervaded the 
entire plant. It must not be inferred that the actinomyces is confined 
to the cereals for its vegetable hosts, since it is not unknown in the cattle 
of North American plains, which live mainly on buffalo grass and never 
see grain. 

The areas of special prevalence of actinomycosis are mostly low, 
damp, and rich in decomposing organic debris. Thus the disease may 
be said to be enzootic in the fens of England (Norfolk and lyincoln, 



39 

Crookshank), in the river-bottom of the Brora in vScotland (Dick), in the 
polders of Zeahmd (Jensen ■, in the low lands in IMarienburg and Ebling 
near the mouth of the \'istula (Preusse), and in the rich, uncultivated 
steppe lands near the Volga ( Mari ) and Dneiper (Korsak). One farm 
in Peoria county, Illinois, furnished 17 cases of actinomycosis in a herd 
of 80, and on a damp delta on Cayuga Lake, New York, I have found 
three bovine generations affected — granddam, dam, and daughter. This 
must be qualified by the statement that cases are more numerous in dry 
seasons, as they are also in winter, because in eating dry, withered fodder 
wounds of the mouth and throat are more common. 

Youth ])redisposes strongly, mainly because it is the period of teeth- 
ing and of raw sores in the mouth, and partly because the tissues are 
more delicate and easily ])enetrated, and because more or less congestion 
is determined by sucking. 

Thrush (most common in youth) and other forms of stomatitis open 
the way for infection, and in Europe cases increase greatly after an 
epizootic oi foot-and-vioiitli disease. In such cases the primary lesions 
are usually in the soft tissues (tongue, cheeks, and face), whereas in con- 
nection with diseased teeth or gums the jaws are the first to suffer. 

The disease appears to have greatly increased in the herds of the 
INIississippi Valley of late years, the infection atria being furnished by 
the scratches, of the head and neck esjiecially, by the bar1)ed wire fences. 

.Iclinoniyces Streptothr i x .— \Q\\\\o\\\\ii^'& was found in the diseased 
jaws of cows, and studied by Perroncito in 1S63, by Rivolta in 1868, 
and by Hahn in 1870. Bollinger was, however, the first to demonstrate 
its constant presence in the sarcomata of the jaws of cattle and to claim 
its etiological significance. Johne next inoculated the actinomyces from 
the cow into the abdominal cavities of two calves and manmuu of a 
cow. Ponfick produced a case of pulmonary actinomycosis by intra- 
venous infection. In 1878, Israel reported two cases of actinomycosis in 
man with .successful inoculation on animals. Langenbeck had, however, 
already in 1S45 found the characteri.stic tufts in the pus from a carious 
human vertebra, and Lebert, in 1848, in the pus of a thoracic abscess. 

Morphology. — As seen in the animal tissues, the actinomyces con- 
sists largely of branching filaments and of the characteri.stic round clus- 
ters or tufts. The latter are the most important diagnostically. as they 
are not really microscopical, but vary in size from a small grain of sand 
to a pin's head (o. i to 0.5 mm.). They have a yellowish, often bright 
sulphur-yellow color, and may be calcified, hard, and gritty. Decalci- 
fied and cut in .sections or broken down and stained, they are seen to 
consist — ist, of a dense central mass of interlacing filaments ; and 2d, 
connecting with the latter, of an outer cortical layer of pyriform or club- 
shaped bodies terminating externally in rounded ends packed closely 
together like the seeds and pericarp of a strawberry, and continued by 
their attenuated inner seeds into the central mycelium. This large clus- 



40 

ter, like a daisy head, is the rule, but it is not invariable. A filament 
sometimes terminates in a single club-shaped cell or divides into two, 
three, or more, while some will grow through a tuft and divide to form 
tufts some distance beyond. In the central felted mass are numerous 
cocci in groups or chains, and the free ends of the pyriform cortical cells 
may be surrounded by spherical granules (hyaline bodies), variously 
described as spores and degeneration products. They stain by Gram's 
method. If difficult to find in thick gelatinoid pus, that may be first 
cleared up by caustic potash. 

Actinomyces is anaerobic, but grows well in the bottom of stab cul- 
tures in glycerined or glucosed agar or gelatin. If accustomed to grow 
in free air, it loses its pathogenic qualit}-, which may partly explain its 
prevalence on close, rich, waterlogged soils from which the air is 
excluded. In dry, porous soils the harmless aerobic habit must be much 
more common. 

Habits of growth and pathogenic potency vary much with different 
conditions in artificial cultures. The tufts are often absent, yet the 
product inoculated on animals produces these as before. Gasperini not 
only obtained different forms from the same stock but he observed that 
forms apparently identical under the microscope varied greatly in patho- 
genic power according to the conditions in which they had been culti- 
vated. The virulence was further largely affected by the greater or 
lesser reaction of the animal tissues invaded. 

Actinomyces differs from the streptothrix of Madura foot, in that it 
is cosmopolitan, is not confined to man, and it is not restricted to foot 
and hand, but attacks all regions progressively and indiscriminatel3\ 
Its behavior in artificial cultures is also entirely different. 

Pathoi^ogical Anatomy. — Aside from the actinomyces with its char- 
acteristic yellow tufts, the pathological formations are like sarcomata. 
The parasite is chemiotactic, causing a great accumulation of embryonic 
and giant cells which are imbeded in a fibrous stroma of varying 
abundance, and determining a great diversity of consistency in different 
neoplasms. Some are very friable ; others are as hard as gristle (holz- 
zunge). The spherical and rodlike elements of the parasite, and even 
the clubs, enter the interior of leucocytes, and are sometimes carried by 
these to form new foci at a distance from the primary one. The disease 
may be cut short by the destruction of the parasite through phagoc3'to- 
sis, or molecular necrosis may en.sue in the neoplasm, or suppuration may 
take place, developing an abscess in the centre, in the walls of which 
the actinomyces may continue to proliferate and advance. It is charac- 
teristic of the hyperplasia that it tends to invade all surrounding tissues 
indiscriminately, though advancing in soft tissues more rapidly, and 
that it only exceptionally implicates the adjacent lymphatic glands until 
tissue in contact with them has been involved. This serves to distin- 
guish it from cancer, tuberculosis, and other diseases. 



41 

Actinomycosis in Man. — As already stated, Lan<(enbeck found the 
actinomyces cells in 1S45 in a carious vertebra of man, and Leheri in 
1S4S in the pus of a thoracic abscess. In 1877, Bollinger publi.shed his 
Cases in cattle, and the following year J. Israel recorded two cases of 
actinomycosis in men. adding a third in 1879, New cases were soon 
recorded, and in 1SS2 was publishetl I'onfick's work, Die Aditiouiykosc 
des Mciischcn. I'p to the present date some hundreds of cases have been 
recorded, including the invasion of the most varied organs of the body, 
though, as in cattle, a decided preference is shown for the vicinity of the 
teeth, the jawbone, face, and neck. 

Actinomyces Hotninis and Actiuot)iyccs Bovis. — In view of the pleo- 
morphism of actinomj'ces and the variations caused by growth in differ- 
ent media or genera, it is difficult to decide upon the identity of these, 
yet the frequent inoculation of calves as well as rodents with the speci- 
mens obtained from man clearly shows that the human and bovine host 
can propagate the same parasite. As the morphology in man and the 
ox is practically identical, it is useless to repeat what has been recorded 
above. (See page 776.) 

Etioi.ogv. — In the main, man derives the disease from the same 
sources as the animal, yet the facts that he habitually cooks his food, 
and is not subject to the buccal injuries which come from the consump- 
tion of hard fibrous vegetables and raw grains, serve to protect him 
from the marked prevalence of the disease shown in cattle in actino- 
myces districts. The influence of dentition and carious teeth as etio- 
logical factors is seen in the frecpiency of primary actinomycosis in the 
jaw and face, and especially at an early age. The case of lung actino- 
mycosis with a particle of carious tooth imbedded in the growth is 
equally significant. The direct action of barley awns has been frequently 
noticed. In Soltman's case the awn lodged in the pharynx, interfering 
with swallowing ; then it penetrated the mucosa, cau.sing hemorrhage ; 
after this it made its way throvigh the tissues, develoi)ing an actinomy- 
cotic phlegmon in its course, and was finally extracted through a fistula 
formed below the scapula. Buzzi records a case of actinomycosis of the 
neck extending from a decayed tooth and enclosing a straw beard in a 
cervical cavity. We may conclude that, as in animals, so in man, the 
germ is usually introduced through the food, air, or water. 

Against infection through eating the flesh of actinomycotic animals 
man is largely jjrotected— ( i ) by the cooking of his food ; (2) by the 
im])aire(l vigor with which the parasite grows when transferred directly 
from animal to animal. But that there is danger of such an infection 
cannot be ignored. The successful transference from man to animals 
implies the possibility of conveyance from animal to man. Certain 
recorded observations, indeed, have been thought to be cases of this 
kind. Baracz instances the transference from man to man, and Barn- 
ard from cattle to man. Q'Neil records the case of a farmer who con- 



42 

tracted actinomycosis after dressinsj: calves siifTering from a disease of 
the skill ; Bergmann, a case affecting the orljit of a man who handled a 
diseased cow ; Munch, the case of a man with pulmonar}' actinom3xosis 
who had fed for three years an ox having this disease in the jaw ; 
Oschner, the case of a farmer and cattle-dealer who treated his "lumpy- 
jaw" cattle with arsenic, and contracted actinomycosis of the antrum 
and facial bones, and of a second Illinois farmer who treated his Oregon 
pony for "lumpy jaw," and himself contracted the disease in antrum 
and face. 

PATHOi.oGiCAr^ Anatomy in Man. — This does not differ essentially 
from what has been already described in cattle. The presence and growth 
of the parasite cause a local phlegmonous inflammation, with an extraor- 
dinary accumulation of embryonic and giant cells in a stroma of fibrous 
tissue. There is an attraction of leucoc3'tes to the microbe, and a process 
of phagocytosis is established which may result in the destruction of 
the parasite or in necrobiosis of the tissues. If the latter, the disease 
goes on slowly spreading into the surrounding tissues, invading their 
structure rather than pushing them aside, and from this, as well as from 
its induration in chronic cases, it has often been mistaken for carcinoma. 
The actinomyces does not seem to be of itself pyogenic, and when 
lodged deeply in the tissues may progress for months without suppura- 
tion. When, however, the diseased focus is invaded by pyogenic bac- 
teria through the primary infection wound or through the swelling 
reaching the surface in the course of its natural increase, the progress 
of the disease is thereafter more rapid, the destructive action of the pus 
microbes evidently paving the wa}^ for a freer growth. The gravity of 
the case, therefore, bears a close relation to the early occurrence of sup- 
puration and fistula or to cutaneous ulceration. As in cattle, the disease 
process bears a close resemblance to that of the round-celled sarcoma, 
and is only to be distinguished by the presence of the actinomyces tufts 
with their. central mycelium and periphery of clubshaped cells. In man, 
too, the disease tends to a chronic form, and generally remains confined 
to its primary focus for a length of time. 

lyOCAi^iZATiON AND SYMPTOMS IN Man. — Infection may occur 
through any breach of continuity of skin or mucous membrane, and 
such breach may be caused by the growth of the actinomyces in a natu- 
ral cavity like the alveoli of the tonsils or the ducts of glands. Primary 
foci, therefore, mostly appear in connection with skin or mucous mem- 
brane. 

( I ) In the Skm. — Ponfick records one case starting from the bite of 
a louse ; Majocchi, one originating in a wound of the skin ; Partsch, one 
following the excision of the breast in a man of sixty years ; Hochenegg, 
one on the skin of the lower jaw following atheroma ; and Kaposi, one 
^u the right axilla. Lesser, who met with three cutaneous cases, found 
that scattered nodules appeared around the primary lesion, and the con- 



43 

iiection could be traced Ihrouj^h jiassages corresponding in size to a lead 
pencil and fdled with yellowish j^ray or reddish j^ray granulations, the 
tissues undergoing niolecidar destruction as these advance. 

Kai)osi's case began with a red spot the size of a florin, which grew 
to the size of a walnut, and then slowly flattened and disa])pL'ared, but 
not until new spots and nodules had formed around it, some as large as 
a pigeon's egy^. The advance was slow for eleven years, when a swelling 
as large as an apple formed on the spine of the sixth vertebra, extended 
forward into the axilla, and finally ulcerated, exposing a soft fungous 
bleeding surface in which the tufts of actinomyces could l)e detected. 
Meanwhile nodules had aj^peared very generally over the trunk and 
lodged in the coriuni. 

(2) /n the Teeth, Gums, and Jazubonesi. — Cases are recorded in which 
a carious cavit}- or periodontal abscess without manifest swelling of the 
bone furnished the characteristic clubshaped cells (Israel, Partsch). 
From such centres the disease spreads to the cancellated tissue of the bone 
or periosteum, with resulting swelling of the lower, or less frequently 
of the upper, jaw. In such cases violent toothache sets in with swelling 
of the jawbone, and most commonl}^ a fistulous opening discharging 
actinomycotic pus. Israel records one such case in a woman of forty- 
six in which the swelling, as large as a cherry, was twice laid open and 
the diseased granulation tissue scraped out before permanent healing 
was secured. In another case the disease in five months extended from 
the lower jaw to the level of the thyroid cartilage. When the lesion 
extends along the periosteum or the superposed soft tissues to the neck, 
it often makes increasingly rapid progress on reaching the loose connec- 
tive tissue of that region. When it extends in the cancellated bone, 
the teeth are loosened, and often all the molars in the affected jaw are 
extracted to relieve the attendant suffering. Murphy met two such cases 
in the Chicago Hospital, one in a woman of twent3'-eiglit and the other 
in a man of eighteen. The w^oman had violent toothache, with swelling 
in the throat and difficult deglutition. These improved under poultic- 
ing, but returned wutli the addition of enlarged tonsil and swelling at the 
angle of the jaw, and a second swelling below on the side of the neck. 
The latter and the swelling in the tonsil were lanced, giving exit to 
actinomycotic pus. The removal of a carious tooth revealed a fistula 
leading from the alveolus to the external wound. The diseased masses 
were now scraped out and the cavity filled with iodoform gauze, and 
recovery ensued. 

Senn furnishes two more cases from the IVIihvaukee Hospital. They 
had each lasted over five months, and all the molars of the jaw on the 
affected side had been extracted. In the first case the edentulous 
alveolar border of the lower jaw, from the first bicuspid backward, pre- 
sented a continuous fungous mass, suppurating freely and with openings 
at intervals discharging actinomycotic pus from deep-seated abscesses. 



44 

The cheek was enormously swollen from the angle of the mouth to the 
lower margin of the parotid, the swelling fading gradually into the sur- 
rounding tissues. An incision was made the whole length of the ramus 
of the jaw, the alveolar processes removed with forceps and chisel, any 
diseased surface of bone scraped, the diseased soft parts dissected out, 
the bone cauterized, and the wound packed with iodoform gauze. Great 
improvement followed, but six weeks later abscesses formed reaching 
from the jaw to the clavicle and scapula, numerous fistulous openings 
appeared, and the patient weakened and died. In the second case there 
was no open sore, no double infection by the introduction of pus 
microbes, and the patient recovered. The disease connected with the 
edentulous posterior alveoli of the upper jaw and the swelling of the soft 
parts extended from the zigoma to the lower border of the maxilla. 
When laid open the whole cheek seemed to be changed into granulation 
tissue in which the yellowish gray actinomyces tufts were found. This 
was thoroughly removed and the jawbone scraped and cauterized. 

In a case treated by Bodamer in the German Hospital, Philadelphia, 
the lesions extended from the right lower maxillary bone, where he had 
had the three back teeth extracted, downward upon the neck and upward 
upon the temporal region, with the formation of fistulous openings at 
intervals. The case was a chronic one, the maxillary swelling, which 
had previously advanced and receded alternately, "coming to stay" in 
1882, and the patient coming to the hospital in 1889. 

The growths have a tendency to migrate, a swelling which at first 
shows on the gums being found later at the angle of the jaw or else- 
where. This seems to imply the death and removal of the actinomyces 
near the seat of infection, while the newer and more vigorous growth is 
advancing into new tissue. 

(3) hi the Tongue. — Hochenegg mentions a case of a cherr5'-sized 
actinomycotic swelling near the tip of the tongue infected from a carious 
tooth, which had apparently served as a traumatic agent as well. Henck 
saw a case of tongue actinomycosis with secondary lesions in the chest 
walls and vertebrae. Three other cases are on record — one primary, one 
secondar}^ and one metastatic. 

(4) In the IniestmaL Capiat and Abdomen. — Primary actinomycosis 
of stomach or bowels occurs from the ingestion of the actinomyces with 
food or water. Getting imbedded in an abrasion, gland duct, or in the 
alveoli of the solitary or agminated glands, the parasite grows and ad- 
vances into the mucosa and deeper parts. Osier records a case affecting 
the small intestine ; Kopfstein and Lanz, cases in the ileo-caecal region ; 
Redtenbacher, Chiari, and others furnish additional cases. In Redten- 
bacher's case a young woman had a swelling like the fist in the epigas- 
trium, and the mesogastrium firmly attached to the abdominal walls, and 
with a second apple-like mass felt behind. It grew rapidly from its first 
appearance in early summer and proved fatal in autumn. A fistula from 



45 

the intestine extended into the muscles and subcutaneous connective 
tissue ; Douglas's i)ouch was full of pus ; and the ovaries, Falk)i)ian 
tubes, and uterus were implicated. Chiari's patient was an emaciated 
man of thirty -six. At the necro])sy was found chronic tuberculosis of 
the lungs and ileum. The nuicosa of the ciucum and colon was catar- 
rhal, with numerous firm round or oljlong patches i centimetre in diam- 
eter l)y 5 millimetres thick, containing 3'ellow actinomyces tufts. 
Zemann furnishes four cases of perforation of the walls of the intestines 
and formation of extensive abscesses in the peritoneal cavity, communi- 
cating with fistulous openings in the alxlominal walls. These cases were 
characterized Ijy acute abdominal ])ains and great tenderness of the 
abdomen. Iveuning and Ilamm furnish a case of primary actinomycosis 
of the colon and secondary formations in the liver, and Ivanghaiis one 
affecting primarih- the veriform aj^pendix, but extending to the bladder 
and liver. 

The liver is usually affected secondarily to other abdominal organs. 
In one case of Sharkey and Ocland, however, it ajjpeared to be the pri- 
mary seat of disease. The patient, a joiner, thirty years old, was very 
pallid and emaciated, and a ])aiiiful tumor like an orange ])rojected for- 
ward in the right hypochondrium. This with a similar tumor in the 
right loin was successively incised, evacuating a very little pus and blood, 
but the patient continued to sink and died on the seventieth day. At 
the necrops}' were found the two abscesses communicating with the 
incision, but considerabl}- diminished. The liver, five pounds three and 
a half ounces in weight, contained numerous globular antinomycotic 
masses, l)etween which the hepatic tissue was soft, wdiite, and shreddy. 
The left lobe was adherent to the abdominal walls and communicated 
with the upper incised tumor and fistula, 

Mr. Shattuck gives two museum cases in which the actinomycotic 
abscesses in the liver were associated with adhesions and thickening of 
the omentum and pelvic peritoneum in one case, and in the other with 
tumors of the ovaries, I'allopian tubes, and adjacent parts. The latter 
case had invaded the right pleura through the diaphragm, to which the 
liver was attached. 

Knur reports the case of a man of thirty who had worked in the 
Union Stock Yards, New York. I.ater he began to cough, lost strength 
and vigor, and had pains in the right side. A swelling formed in the 
right hy])ocliondrium, which was lanced but yielded only a bloody liquid 
debris. Similar swellings followed at intervals, but their incision gave 
no better results, and the patient became very pale, emaciated, and weak. 
In the discharges were found actinomyces tufts, and an o])cratiou was 
attempted, but the patient died of shock. 

A ca.se involving ovaries and liver is reported by Stewart and Muir, 
and one affecting the liver and lungs by Taylor. Cases involving the 
urinary organs are reported by Langhans and Ransom. 



46 

(5) In the Chest and Air-passao^es. — Majocchi saw a case in which 
the mouth and larynx were simultaneously affected. Actinomycosis of 
the lungs has been frequently observed, the germ having been evidently 
inhaled. In one case, however, Israel found a fragment of an infected 
carious tooth in the centre of the lung lesion. The diagnosis may be made 
by observing the actinomyces tufts or clubs in the expectoration in cases 
affecting the bronchial mucosa and attended by symptoms of foetid bron- 
chitis, and also in extensive deposits in the lung tissues and cavities 
comumncating with the bronchia. The actinomyces must not be con- 
founded with cells and mycelia of leptothrix or aspergillus. In other 
cases with adhesions of the lung and the formation of a fistula through 
an intercostal space the discharge may identify it. In those forms, how- 
ever, in which there are miliary deposits only in the lung tissue it may 
be impossible to diagnose it from tuberculosis excepting by a resort to 
tuberculin as a means or inducing reaction. In most cases, however, 
pulmonar)' actinomycosis is associated with lesions in other organs, 
which materially help in diagnosis. Fever, though usually present, is 
variable according to the extent and activity of the inflammatory action 
and the invasion of pyogenic microbes. 

Primary actinomycosis of the lungs is recorded by Munch ( i case), 
Canalie (i case), Ullmann (i case), Hanan (2 cases) and Jekenovitsch (i 
case). Netter furnishes two cases, of the pleura and posterior mediastinal 
glands respectively, in both of which the lungs were sound. In other 
cases the vertebrte and walls of the chest were the seat of the lesions as 
an extension or metastasis from other parts. Dor cites the case of a man 
with primary lesions in the jaw and secondary in the lungs. Szenasy, 
on the contrary, records the case of a butcher's wife with carious teeth, 
but no appreciable actinomyces, who had suffered for nine years from a 
violent cough and severe pain in the chest, together with a growing and 
slightly fluctuating swelling on the right breast in the third intecostal 
space. Liquid drawn from this by aspiration showed actinomyces. 

(6) In the Brain. — Bollinger records a case of primary actinomy- 
cosis of the brain in a man of twenty-six. There were severe headache, 
paralysis of the left abducens, congestion of the optic disk, and intervals 
of momentary unconsciousness. The lesion was found as a cysto-myxoma 
in the third ventricle, with affusion in all the ventricles. Two cases of 
secondary brain actinomycosis are reported by Keller and Gamgee and 
Delepine. Keller's patient, a woman of middle age, suffered from pleu- 
risy, which in six months led to pointing of an intercostal abscess, with 
actinomyces in the pus. Two years later she had paresis of the left limb 
and side of the face, convulsions, and epilepsy, for which she was tre- 
phined, with temporary relief of the paralysis, followed by death a few 
days later. A mass of granulation tissue over the right frontal and pari- 
etal convolutions extended an inch into the brain, and beneath was an 
abscess as large as a nutmeg containing actinomyces. In the case 



47 

of Gamhee and Delepine there were left pleural eflfusion and a hepatic 
abscess containing actinoniyces, and in the frontal, parietal, and tem- 
l)Qro-sphenoidal lobes of the brain a mycelial <^rowth without clubs. 

I)ia(;n()SIS. — While the symptoms will vary according to the organ 
invaded, and the correct diagnosis will always rest finally on the presence 
of the actinoniyces in the lesions, yet there are certain indications which 
should lead to the suspicion of actinomycosis and consequent micro- 
scopic investigation. First, actinomycosis is habitually chronic : when 
it develops rapidl}- there is usuall}- the early formation of abscess, in 
which the actinomyces are found. The specific product a]:)art from the 
parasitic growth, is granulation tissue, small round cells, and giant cells, 
in a fibrous stroma of variable density, and it increases like a tumor, 
with comparatively little pain or tenderness, rather than like an inflam- 
matory swelling. In advancing it invades the tissues indiscriminate!}', 
in this respect resembling a cancer. It differs from cancer, however, in 
its usual development under the integument, and in its invading the skin 
from within outward, whereas cancer tends to extend from the epithelial 
layers inward. It further differs from cancer, and equally from tubercle, 
syphilis, and glanders, in its indisposition to form secondar}- lesions in 
adjacent lymphatic glands, whereas in these other diseases such neoplasia 
in the glands are to be expected. As a further diagnostic S3'mptom of 
tuberculosis and glanders, the injection of a small dose of tuberculin or 
mallein may be employed to produce febrile reaction in case one of these 
diseases is present. The patient's consent to the risk of such temporary 
aggravation of his disease should of course be obtained. 

Prophvi.axis. — In considering the wide range of causation it stands 
out clearly that certain soils are culture fields for the pathogenic actino- 
myces, and indications point to drainage and aeration of such soils as 
sanitary measures. If this is im])ossible, the soils should be withheld 
from pasturage or raising forage crops, especially such as are to be con- 
sumed by young teething stock and during winter. Foods raised on such 
soils for the use of man may be sterilized by heat. Actinomycotic cattle 
should be promptly destroyed or subjected to curative treatment, as the 
escaping seeds, whether dried up and conveyed on the air to food and 
water or lodged on vegetation or soil where they can grow and multi- 
ply, are calculated to increase the danger. The stables where diseased 
cattle have stood, above all the stalls and mangers, should be deluged 
with boiling water or treated with steam under pressure, and then soaked 
in a solution of i ounce of sulphate of copper in 8 ounces of water. The 
discharge from actinomycotic sores should be burned or disinfected. An 
important precaution is for human beings in actinomyces districts to 
maintain a healthy condition of the teeth and gums. Animals with 
actinomycosis should not be killed and marketed as dressed beef, but 
subjected to curative treatment. The carcass may, however, be safely 
marketed as canned meat. 



48 

TrraTimrnT. — Foniierh' actinom3'Cosis was treated by surgical means 
onl}', embracing the excision of the tumors or later the scraping out of 
the granulation tissue with a strong sharp spoon, and the application of 
caustics to the cavity. Strong solutions of sulphate of copper proved 
very effective for purely local lesions, but manifestly such measures 
were useless for lesions of important internal organs. Since Bollinger's 
demonstration of the microphytic cause of the disease I have resorted 
to iodized phenol, applied on tow or cotton to the cavities, after scrap- 
ing out the diseased masses as completely as possible. This proved most 
efficient even in the worst local cases, the agent being at once a more 
efficient parasiticide than the copper, and a less destructive agent to sound 
tissues. In 1S85, Professor Thomassen of the Veterinary College of 
Utrecht resorted to large doses of iodide of potassium internally, and by 
the use of this agent the disease has been virtually robbed of its terrors. 
It has now been very extensively applied in both Europe and America 
to cattle in all stages of the disease, and in the main with success. The 
most extensive test was by the Bureau of Animal Industry upon 185 
cattle in all stages of the malady, and of which 131, or 71 per cent., 
rapidly and completel}" recovered. In all recent and moderate cases a 
cure is to be expected. It would, however, be unwise to omit local 
treatment wherever that can be applied. The swellings should be cut 
out or scraped out to their depth and the cavity filled with stupes satu- 
rated with iodized phenol. The iodide of potassium should not exceed 
I gramme (16 grains) for every 100 pounds of live weight of the animal. 
This is given daily for four or five days, when iodism will be shown by 
free secretion from the nose and eyes and some inappetence and costive- 
ness of the bowels. A laxative diet and doses of laxative medicine will 
prepare the animal in two days for a second week's treatment, and a 
similar preparation will fit for a third, until the disease is cured. Recov- 
ery may be completed in from five to seven weeks. In man 20 to 30 
grains daily has proved equally effective, even in apparently aggravated 
cases. The good result appears to depend on the destructive action of 
the iodine on the parasite, an exact parallel to its action on the achorion 
Schonleini of ringworm. Norgaard has cultivated actinomyces in gelatin 
containing i per cent, of iodide of potassium, but in the animal system 
the microphyte has already met with an inimical agent in the phago- 
cytes, and it is only necessary to reinforce this by the internal iodine 
medication to put an end to its propagation in the tissues. 



VETERINARY SCHOOLS IN THE STATE. 



Editorial in Turf, Field and Farm, April 22, iSgS. P. 51J. 



The New York State Veterinary College is located at Ithaca on the cam- 
pns of Cornell University, and the Legislature has voted thousands of the 
people's money toe(|uip it and keep it going. The announcement for the 
coming year gives the class for 1 897-1 89S. There are five third-year stu- 
dents, only one of whom is from New York ; eight second-year students, 
six of which are from Ithaca and four first-year students. This is a very 
weak showing for the amount of money expended. What is the cause ? 
The standard of admission to this and other veterinary colleges in the 
State has been made so high by the Board of Regents as to practically bar 
the majority of young men who aspire to the practice of veterinar}' medi- 
cine. A certificate of 48 academic counts is required to enter. The num- 
ber of counts represented by each subject is : English, 8; geography, 
physical and political, 2 ; drawing, 2 ; American history and civics, 2 ; 
plane geometry, 4; algebra, 4; elementary French, 4; elementary (German, 
4 ; Latin, Caesar and Grammar, 8 ; chemistry, 4 ; and geology, 4. This is 
a formidable list, and it is pronounced unreasonable by some of the fore- 
most scientific men in the State. If the Regents do not reduce the num- 
ber of counts the Legislature should take the matter in hand next Winter. 
It is absurd to spend the people's money in such a way as to furnish such 
insignificant results. While the veterinary colleges of this State are being 
strangled by the action of the Regents, those of other States and of Can- 
ada are doing a flourishing business. Students unable to pass a prelimin- 
ary examination here find no difiiculty in entering the schools at Toronto, 
Montreal and elsewhere. 



PROF. LAW ON VETERINARY SCHOOLS. 



Reply to Editorial in Turf, Field and Farm. April 2g, iSgS. P. jj2. 



New York State Veterinary Coi.i.ege, 
Cornell University, 

Ithaca, N. Y., April 22, 1898. 
Editor Turf, Field and Farm : 

In common with other teachers, I am glad to see the interest shown 
in veterinary education in the article on "Veterinary Schools in the 
State." But there are certain points which the writer of that article does 
not seem to have had before him, and that are important, if we would 
reach an intelligent conclusion on the subject. 

First, the Regents demand 48 academic counts for matriculation, but 
they do not demand that these shall be the subjects named in the article. 
Excepting the 8 counts in English, which are compulsory on all, the can- 
didate may select any group of subjects taught in a high school, and if 
he can present 40 counts in these in addition to the 8 in English he will 
be accepted. As indicated by the Regents' examinations handbook, it 
seems as if the student might take 38 counts in English alone, and the 
remaining 10 counts might be taken in arithmetic, geography, drawing 
and other simple subjects, without a single foreign tongue or hard, scien- 
tific study. "The rule is ( page 9 of our "Announcement" ): "Regents' 
pass card for any 48 academic counts. ' ' 

It is perfectly true that hitherto certain veterinary schools have ad- 
mitted students with practically no preliminary examination. But the 
men who could not have taken such preliminary examination are handi- 
capped for life, unless they can overcome their deficiency by hard work in 
the future. 

When a veterinarian has been wanted to undertake scientific work, 
as in agricultural and experiment stations, the choice has almost invaria- 
bly fallen on one who has a bachelor's degree ; or, at least, what our New 
York law demands for matriculation in a veterinary college. 

If we turn to the European veterinary schools we find that all de- 
mand an elaborate matriculation examination; in five cases Latin is obliga- 



ton-, ami in several one other langua<(e in addition to this and the native 
one. Then the professional studies in these European schools extend in 
different cases from three and one-half to five years, of at least nine 
months each, and it is a very common thin<^ for the student to stay an 
extra year because he cannot accom])lisli the work in the time prescribed. 

If we are to learn anythinj^ from the experience of the Old World and 
the demands of the New for scientific veterinary work, the lesson would 
seem to be unquestionably that our average American veterinary college 
has lagged behind and is failing to fulfil the demand of modern medi- 
cine and of our immense live-stock industry. The domestic animals fur- 
nish as many different genera in America as in Europe. They suffer from 
the same diseases ; or, if we lack one or two that are common in Europe, 
we can furnish at least a corresponding number which are peculiar to 
America. We yield to no European country in the numbers or values of 
our live-stock. Why, then, should the guardians of their health and of 
our public health to be one whit less accomplished or efficient than those 
entrusted with the same duties in Europe ? 

This is not and should not be a question of the survival of this school 
or that ; it is and must be the question of how to best contribute to the 
welfare of our great live stock interests. In making the transition from 
the methods of the past, which are no longer in keeping with the medi- 
cine of the present and the future, some inconvenience must come to the 
existing schools; but if these will loyally stand by the higher require- 
ments the New York schools will soon find that they will secure a new 
demand for graduates from the country districts, which have been sup- 
plied hitherto by graduates of alien colleges with still lesser reciuirements, 
and our live-stock will secure the care of more accomplished men in dis- 
ease and health. In place of being strangled b}- the New York law, our 
colleges will enter on a new' career, higher and better than before, and 
the sanitation of our herds and markets will be more thoroughly secured. 

To go back to our former system will, perhaps, bring an inmiediate 
influx of students, but it will entail a lower t3-pe of veterinarian ; It will 
defeat its own end by admitting from schools outside of the State a host 
of students moving on a still lower plane, the interests of our livestock 
industry will correspondingly suffer and American veterinary medicine 
will be kept for an indefinite time far below that of Europe. 

Because Toronto and Montreal have fallen far behind the lead of 
Europe is certainly no reason why we, too, should forget that we are liv- 
ing in the last years of the Nineteenth Century. 

Yours, etc., 

JAMES LAW. 



DANGERS TO MANKIND FROM THE CONSUMPTION 



OF THE 



FLESH AND MILK OF TUBERCULOUS ANIMALS. 



DANGERS TO MANKIND FROM THE CONSUMPTION 

OF THE FLESH AND MILK OF 

TUBERCULOUS ANIMALS. 

RV DR. JAMKS r.AW, ITHACA, N. V. 



The subject assigned me opens a wider field than I am inclined 
to cultivate at present. So I shall make a selection of a few points 
only which may l^e fairly included in the general subject. I pro- 
pose therefore to place under separate headings some thoughts on 
issues which I l)elieve to be live and urgent to-day. 

THK ORIGINAL IDENITY AND EvSSENTlAL UNITY 
OF THK BACILLUS TUBERCULOvSIS. 

Probably, as no one denies this proposition, yet you will bear 
with me if I state succinctly a few of the conditions which ser\^e 
to establish this identity. For if all branches of bacillus tubercu- 
losis have come from one common primary stock and if all the 
varied manifestations of tubercle are but different forms of the 
same essential morbid condition, it cannot be safely claimed that 
the seed of the different branches is incapable of developing a 
product like the same original stock. 

I St. The bacillus tuberculosis, from whatever animal derived 
has a vsimilar, apparently an almost identical morphology. 2nd 
All alike have peculiar staining properties, which distinguish them 
from all other pathogenic organisms except the bacillus leprae 
and the smegma bacillus, the lesions of which cannot be con- 
founded with tubercle. 3rd. Its viability and destructibility ; its 
thermal death point ; its destruction by light ; its sur\aval of 
drying, freezing and putrefaction ; its propagation through dust, 
agree no matter what the source from which it was obtained. 4th. 
In the general susceptibility of a great number of genera of ani- 
mals to the inoculated germ, and in the special susceptibility of 
of the connnon experimental animals like rodents to the germ as 
derived from different animal sources, we have another strong 
evidence of an essential unity. 5th. In the usual seats of elec- 
tion for tlie propagation of the loacillus in the bodies of different 



DANGERS OP TUBERCULOUS ANIMALS 3l 

animals, and irrespective of the animal from which the virus was 
drawn, we find another indication of primar}- and essential identity. 
The preference of tubercles for the lymph glands, lymph plexuses 
and lymph sacs or serous membranes is a characteristic that need 
not be specially insisted on. 6th. The close similarity of the 
lesions caused in different animals by the bacilli drawn from the 
different genera bespeaks an essential identit3\ The congested 
miliary nodule or tubercle, with the excessive production of nests 
of small rounded cells, which tend to degeneration, necrOvSis and 
caseation, is essentially the same in all, and while it may be 
mimicked b\' certain other lesions such as glanders, it is so in none 
other having a germ bearing the same characteristics as those of 
the bacillus tuberculosis. 7th. In all forms of the disease, and 
from w^hatever source the bacillus maj^ have been derived, there 
is the same tendenc}' to a slow evolution of the morbid lesion. 
8th. The bacillus tuberculosis from any genus of animal demands 
for its artificial culture a special culture-medium, glycerined or 
glucosed as the case may be, while it refuses to grow readily on 
the common culture media of the laboratory. 9th. The bacillus 
drawn from any genus of tuberculous animal grows with remarka- 
ble tardiness, and does not attain a full development until at the 
end of about two months. loth. The culture medium of the 
bacillus from any genus of animal, — man, ox, or bird, — becomes 
charged with those products w^hich are collectively known as 
tuberculin, and to all cases alike these act on the tuberculous 
system in the same way causing hyperthermia and other nervous 
disorders. It matters little whether the bouillon had been seeded 
from the tubercle of man, ox, bird, ape or bear, the resulting 
tuberculin can be used with confidence in testing for tuberculosis, 
in any animal. 

This ought to be enough to establish the primary and essen- 
tial unity of the germ. It is useless to ignore the fact that spec- 
ial minor differences may be established between two varieties of 
the bacillus which have respectively lived for a length of time in 
two widely different genera of animals, but the original and funda- 
mental unity must be held to more than counterbalance this tem- 
porary and slight diversit3^ The single fact that the hypothetical 
parent germ has contained the potentiality which evolved under 
different environments into what w^e may perhaps admit to be two 
varieties, virtually establishes the possibility and the probability 
of the reversion to the original type, when the environment 
changes and becomes like that in which the original or parent 



82 JAMES LAW 

germ was produced. The elasticity of type in nature and the 
adaptabiHty of an organism to its environment is a fact which 
we must always keep in view, in the field of pathology and in 
what we are pleased to call the normal. But it would be alike 
illogical and unscientific, to hold to this plasticit}' of type in one 
direction and to ignore or deny it in the oppOvSite. If an organism 
is capable of evolution it must be equally capable of retrogression. 
The very claim of the evolution of a special variety of the bacillus, 
therefore, is the best possible evidence that that variety has not 
become harmless under all conditions to the host from the bacillus 
of which it has varied. 

TRANSMISSION OF TUBERCULOSIS FROM MAN TO ANIMALS AND 
FROM ANIMALS TO MAN. 

The whole history of experimental tuberculosis consists in the 
conveyance of tuberculosis from animal to animal, from one 
genus of animal to another, and from man to the lower animals. 
The experimental animals have been mainly rabbits, Guineapigs, 
rats, mice, dogs, cats, cattle, sheep, swane and ICvSs frequently 
horses and birds. Apart from the avian tuberculosis, the experi- 
mental infections, by inoculation, feeding and inhalation, have 
been so successful, not to say constant, that the conviction of the 
essential identity of the bacillus in the different quadrupeds has 
been generally accepted. The infection of quadrupeds generally 
by the tuberculous products of man has also been so nearly con- 
stant that there is little room for doubt as to the primary identity 
of the germ in the human and lower animals. 

TRANSMISSION OF TUBERCULOSIS FROM MAN TO OX AND 
FROM OX TO MAN. 

The one animal from whicli man derives the greater part of 
his meat and milk — the bovine animal — has been by some ex- 
cluded from this list. The intrinsic value of the animal has pre- 
vented its free use for experimental purposes, and a few laborator}" 
experiments, notably those of Kruse and Theobald Smith, have 
shown that human tubercle may cause a local in place of general 
tuberculosis in cattle and the opponents of active official measures 
for the extinction of the disease have seized upon these as alleged 
proof that the tuberculosis of cattle is in no sense inimical to 
man. It is incumbent on us to show that the conclusion has been 



DANGERS OF TUBERCULOUS ANIMALS 83 

reached from too restricted premises, and that a wider considera- 
tion of the subject would demonstrate that the innnediate danger 
is greater than these contestants suppose, while the remote dan- 
gers which come from an adaptation of the bacillus to its new 
habitat in man are so great that any neglect of this source of 
infection must be highly reprehensible. 

The infection of calves with the tubercle of man was accom- 
plished by Chauveau who, according to Nocard, has shown "that 
the two maladies under all their forms" (in ox and man) "are 
equally inoculable upon young bovine animals, and that the con- 
secutive lesions, whether caused by ingestion or intravenous injec- 
tion, are always identical, whatever may have been the origin of 
the product inoculated." (Dictionaire de Med. Veter., Vol. 21, 
p. 476.) 

A long list of accidental infections of man from ox tends to 
corroborate the above. 

INOCULATION CASES. 

Tscherning attended a veterinarian who cut his finger while 
making a necropsj'- of a tuberculous cow. An ulcerating swelling 
formed which was excised and found to contain tubercle bacilli. 
The patient recovered without the formation of other tubercles 
(Nocard). 

Pfeiffer of Weimar attended a veterinarian who had been sim- 
ilarly inoculated at the necropsy of a tuberculous cow. The patient, 
aged 34, had no hereditary taint, and a good constitution. The 
wound was a deep one, in the left thumb, and healed readily, but 
six months later there was cutaneous tuberculosis in the cicatrix 
follow^ed b}^ pulmonary tuberculosis with bacilli in the expectora- 
tion, and the subject died two and a half years after the infliction 
of the wound. At the necropsy there were found tubercular 
arthritis of the wounded thumb and many vomicae in the lungs. 
(Zeitschrift f. Hygiene, Bd. III). 

An honored member of this Association was inoculated on 
the back of the hand in making a postmortem examination of a 
tuberculous cow, and the sore swelled, ulcerated and refused to 
heal, and when excised was found to contain tubercle bacilli. He 
had no ulterior bad consequence. 

Martin du Magny has collected a number of cases of cutaneous 
innoculation of tubercle, some of which were in butchers and team- 
sters, and Hanot quotes cases in persons who had habituall}^ 
handled old bones. (Senn, Principles of Surgery.) Riehl and 



84 JAMES LAW 

Paltaiif record cases of tuberculosis verrucosa cutis in persons ac- 
customed to handle animal products. (Senn). Osier refers to 
this as \\\^ postmortem ivart {^ Verruca neerogenica) and as common 
in butchers and tanners. It is also seen in demonstrators of 
morbid anatomy, and whether derived from, human or bovine 
carcasses, has a tendency to remain circumscri1)ed. In ex- 
ceptional cases infection extends to the lymph glands and be- 
comes generalized. (Gerber. ) 

INGESTION CASES. 

Tuberculosis by ingestion is in the nature of things much 
less clear and definite than is infection by inoculation. With a 
disease which has a constant tendency to assume a chronic course, 
the connection of the morbid phenomena with the primar}^ causa- 
tion factor is likely to be ignored and overlooked. In inocula- 
tion cases this is counterbalanced by the occurrence of the morbid 
action in the cicatrix, which thus serves as an obvious connect- 
ing link. But in intestinal infection there is no such ready means 
of establishing the relation of cause and effect, and the occurrence 
of manifest intestinal tuberculosis, peritonitis, tabes, hepatitis or 
splenitis many months and perhaps 3xars after infection is rarel}^ 
traced to its actual cause. Nevertheless a sufficient number of 
cases are on record to firml}- establish the doctrine of this infec- 
tion by the products of tuberculous cattle. 

Lydtin gives the following case : Dr. Stang of Amorbach was 
called to a finel}^ developed five year old boy, the son of healthy 
parents, with no hereditary taint in their ancestors. The boy 
died a few weeks later with miliary tuberculosis of the lungs, 
and enormously enlarged, tubercular mesenteric glands. At the 
necropsy it was learned that the bo^^ had habituall}^ drank the 
milk of a cow which had been killed shortly before he died 
and which had shown pulmonar}- tuberculosis. ( Report of A'eter- 
inary Congress at Brussels, 1883, p. 288). 

Dr. Demme of the Children's Hospital, Berne, records the 
cases of four infants, the offspring of sound parents, with no 
hereditary taint of tubercle, which died of intestinal and mesen- 
tric tuberculosis, having been fed on the milk of tuberculous 
cows. Among 2,000 tuberculous infants treated by Dr. Demme 
in twenty years, these were the only ones in which he could abso- 
lutely exclude the possibility of hereditary taint and other causes. 
(Report of the Hospital as quoted by Nocard.) 



DANGERS OF TUBERCULOUS ANIMAI^ 85 

Mr. Howe of North Hadley, Mass., lost a son of 20 months 
old, from abdominal tuberculosis, three months after he had paid 
a week's visit to his uncle and had been fed the milk of the uncle's 
cow. The cow was killed soon after and shown to have general- 
ized tuberculosis. The child's sickness and wasting began a few 
weeks after he returned home. He had previously been strong 
and healthy, as w^ere and are his parents. Both the grandfathers 
had died of tuberculosis when over sixty years of age, also two 
grandaunts and one granduncle. Onl}^ one of these had seen the 
child and then for a few minutes only. A second child born since 
the death of the first, and raised on sterilized milk, is strong and 
well. 

The four^'ear old son of Col. Beecher of Yonkers (and great 
grandson of Henr^^ Ward Beecher), died March, 1894, o^ tuber- 
cular meningitis, and the two Alderne}^ cows which supplied him 
milk were then proved tuberculous by the tuberculin test and 
postmortem examination. There was no hereditary taint. 

The child of Dr. Brown, U. S. A., and now of Ithaca, was 
similarly cut off by tuberculosis, having lived on the milk of a 
tuberculous cow. 

Oliver records the case of a twenty year old girl, of vigorous 
health, and good antecedents, who contracted a fatal tubercular 
meningitis, having drank the milk of cows having tubercular ulcers 
on their udders and which ^vere found on slaughter to have gen- 
eralized tuberculosis. (Semaine Medicale, Feb., 1892). 

Ernst records the following : A family cow died of chronic 
pulmonar}^ tuberculosis, from which she had suffered severely for 
one year. Dr. C. H. Peabod}^, Providence, found that the tuber- 
culous lungs and heart weighed 43.5 pounds, and extensive tuber- 
cles in the mediastinal and mesenteric glands, trachea, tongue, 
spleen, kidneys, intestines and udder. Three months later the 
baby sickened and in seven weeks died of tubercular meningitis ; 
two years later a three year old child of the family died of tuber- 
cular bronchitis. One year later a boy of five years became weak 
and pun}^ and died in four years of tuberculosis. The parents 
were strong and healthy, and one grandparent was alive and well 
at 68 and another died at 78. (Krnst. Infectiousness of Milk, 
p. 108.) 

A. H. Rose, lyittleton, Mass., gives the case of a child which 
fed for three years on the milk of a tuberculous cow, and died 
with symptoms of abdominal tuberculosis. (Ernst. Infectious- 
ness of Milk, p. no.) 



86 JAMES LAW 

Bailey, of Portland, Me., condemned and made necropsy of 
a tuberculous cow which furnished the sole milk supply for the 
family, and found that the wife of the owner, though of .sound 
ancestr>', was in an advanced state of consumption. (EnivSt.) 

Gordon of Quincy, Mass., records the case of the ten months 
child of healthy parents and ancestr}^ which had fed on the milk 
of a cow with advanced tuberculosis, and which died after a few 
weeks of acute tuberculosis. (Ernst.) 

Gage, Lowell, Mass., had an infant patient die of tubercular 
meningitis. The parents were health}- and surroundings good. It 
had subsisted exclusivel}^ on the milk of a cow, and this milk 
showed tubercle bacilli and infected guineapigs inoculated with 
it. A second child, fed the same milk, developed similar symptoms. 
(Ernst. Report Mass. S. Prom. Agric'l, 1871.) 

A Scotch family, strong and healthy, had a herd of cows 
which contracted tuberculosis. Two young daughters brought 
up on the milk, died of tuberculOvSis ; while the two older broth- 
ers, using little or no milk, remained well and hearty. (Tubercu- 
losis. Nat. Vet. Assn., London, 1883.) 

Anderson, Iceland, reports the death from tuberculosis of a 
child of six months, fed on the milk of a cow suffering from 
tuberculosis of the udder. The mother developed symptoms of 
consumption after the death of the child. (Hatch Expt. Statn. 
of Mass. Agric'l College. Bull. No. 3, p. 15). 

Huon gives the case of a cow used in nursing calves, which 
were employed in raising the lymph of variola vaccinae, and kept 
strictly b}^ herself and apart from all other cattle. When intro- 
duced she had all the appearance of health and gave no reaction 
when subjected to the tuberculin test. After some time she lost 
condition and in six months was in an advanced state of emaciation, 
gave a t^-pical reaction under the tuberculin test and when killed 
showed extensive (assez grave) tuberculosis. Her care-taker at 
the vaccine establishment had what was supposed to be chronic 
bronchitis with profUvSe expectoration, but when he died soon after 
this was found to be extensive pulmonary tuberculosis. 

These cases are adduced as instances of infection that occur 
casually, and that are almost inexplicable on any other hypothesis 
than that of direct infection from the cattle. They form exact 
counterparts to many cases of experimental infection of the 
smaller animals l)y the tubercle of man. They tend to show that 
the ])acilhis tuberculosis drawn directly from cattle does not 
always cause a mere local disease, for in two of the inoculation 



DANGERS OF TUBKRCULOUS ANIMATES 87 

cases and tweiit}' ingestion cases generalized tuberculosis was the 
result. How man}- cases of local tuberculosis must be assumed 
to have occurred in the same way, but in which the victims either 
recovered or lapsed into the latent form : And how many cases in 
which the disease developed tardily, so as to obviate suspicion as 
to its true source by ingestion, wdien its evolution had been suffi- 
ciently extensive to lead to its recognition. 

Shakespeare, Osier, and most prominent physicians, remark 
on the prevalence of intestinal and mesentric tuberculosis in 
children as pointing unequivocalh^ to the food supply as the 
source of infection. Comby in Twentieth Century Practice shows 
that tuberculosis of the intestines and tabes mesenterica are diseases 
occuring especiall}^ between early and late childhood, — between 
two and five 3^ears. Coming as this does after the child has passed 
from an exclusive milk diet, it suggests that the disease has been 
for a time comparativel}^ latent, so that when its generalization 
calls prompt attention to it, its true primary cause is liable to be 
overlooked. 

The following experimental cases may be added. Two at 
least show secondar}- glandular tubercles : 

Bollinger made intraperitoneal inoculation of a three months 
old calf with liquid from a tuberculous human lung, and killed the 
subject seven months later. Fibroid pediculated tumors, like a 
pea to a walnut in size, hung from the mesentery and spleen and 
the mesenteric and retroperitoneal glands were tuberculous. 
(Munch, med Wochenschr. 1894). 

Sidney Martin fed four calves 70 cc. sputum containing a 
large number of bacilli. Three killed after 4, 8 and 12 weeks 
respectively had 53, 63, and 13 nodules respectively in the small 
intestines mostly in Peyer's patches. The fourth killed after 33 
weeks showed no lesion. 

Two calves receiving at one dose 440 cc. sputum containing 
a large number of bacilli, were killed after 8 and 19 weeks. The 
first had tuberculous nodules in the intestine and mesenteric glands; 
the second showed no lesion. (Report of Royal Commission on 
Tuberculosis). 

Frothingham injected into the peritoneum of two calves, 
three and thirteen weeks old, a culture of bacilli, isolated one year 
before from the liver of a child. Slight local nodules only were 
produced some like spontaneous tubercle, others granulation tis- 
sue. Two other calves three weeks and two months old, were 
injected in the trachea. One had a large local abscess in the neck 



88 JAMES LAW 

witli a small luiiiibcr of tubercles (without bacilli) in the lungs 
and liver. The other showed no lesion. 

With the advance of the disease along the lymph channels to 
the glands, lungs and liver there was a promise of further develop- 
ment under more favorable conditions of life. 

TUBERCULOSIS OF MAN AND OX CO-EXTENSIVE. 

A strong argument for the intertransmission of tuberculosis 
between cattle and men is found in the remarkable prevalence of 
the disease in both genera in some regions, and its absence in 
others. 

In the vScottish Hebrides, Iceland, Newfoundland, and the 
coasts of Hudson Bay, where cattle are few and the inhabitants 
live largeh' on fish, consumption is a rare disease. This is not 
due to the insusceptibility of the natives, for if they migrate to 
the localities where tuberculosis abounds they fall easy victims. 

In northern Norwa}', Sweden, Lapland and Finland, where 
cattle are few and largely replaced by reindeer, there is little 
tuberculosis though the natives live in close buildings through 
their long and severe winters. 

In most of the Pacific Islands there are no cattle, and the na- 
tives are comparatively free from consumption. The Hawaiian 
Islands, of which this was true until after the introduction of 
European cattle, have since that date become very subject to the 
disease. 

Australia and Tasmania, which fort}^ 3^ears ago w^ere so free 
from tuberculosis that they became the Mecca for the consump- 
tives of England, have under the advent of the victims of the dis- 
ease and the universal prevalence of cattle raising, become little 
better than a hotbed of the affection. 

Minnesota and the Dakotas were, thirt}^ j^ears ago, in the 
early days of their settlement, looked upon as nature's sanitarium 
for the phthisical, but since the advent of a denser population, 
many of them tuberculosis refugees, and of domesticated cattle, 
this reputation has been steadily lost. The Indian population 
within their borders is now ravaged by tuperculosis to an extent 
to which it is difficult to find a parallel elsewhere. 

In the Kirghiz Steppes the Tartars keep large herds of horses 
instead of cattle, eating their flesh and drinking their fermented 
milk, and they are remarkably free from tuberculosis. 

In China and Japan the lower classes of the people are rice 



DANGERS OF TUBERCULOUS ANIMAI^ 89 

eating vegetarians, and in spite of confined and unhygenic homes 
they rarely suffer from tuberculosis. The Mandarin and aristo- 
cratic classes on the other hand are beefeaters and in spite of 
their more spacious, cleaner and better ventilated houses, and 
their more abundant and nutritious dietary, they are scourged by 
tuberculosis. 

In Italy the mildness of the climate has long attracted con- 
sumptives from the rest of Europe, and it has been and remains 
a hotbed of consumption for men and cattle alike. The sources 
of the scourge have been recognized for centuries, and have been 
restricted by legislation. Flick (Public Health, Vol. XVI) esti- 
mates that in Naples the human mortality from tuberculosis was 
reduced from lo per 1000 in 1782 to 1.16 per 1000 inhabitants in 
1887. Yet in Italy, as in Algiers, the malad}^ remained as a ver- 
itable plague. ' ' (Perroncito. ) In northern Ital}^ where the restric- 
tion laws found little countenance the mortality remains 2.2 per 
1000 inhabitants, much lower than that of I^ondon or Paris, 
though higher than in Naples. 

Holden tells us that tuberculosis is rare in Columbia, Ecua- 
dor and the interior of the Argentine Republic, where, as he 
further alleges, little milk and no butter are used. 

The reservations of the North American Indians furnish the 
most striking examples of the extension of the scourge of tuber- 
culosis. These wards of the nation are supplied with beef under 
contract, and according to abundant testimony, have been habit- 
ually furnished with inferior and often diseased cattle. These 
they destroy on their arrival and eat large portions raw, espe- 
cially of the mesentery and internal organs, the usual seats of 
tuberculosis. 

Treon describes as follows, the result of a fresh arrival of 
beeves at the Crow Creek Agency : "Saturday early in the morn- 
ing, the cattle are shot down in the corral, and the Indians drag 
them out, skin and cut them up. I have observed them frequently, 
when slaughtering, eating the warm liver, tallow and even the en- 
trails, and great quantities of raw beef. In fact much of the beef 
is dried, pounded up and eaten without cooking. Frequently 
they eat animals that have died of disease days before, and to my 
mind, here is a good solution of the trouble. Supposing that 
only one out of a thousand cattle received, be affected with tuber- 
culosis, * * from the manner of dividing the beef it is possible 
and probable that 100 persons may become inoculated by a single 
diseased animal." 



90 JAMES LAW 

Holden gives the mortality for the Indians in different reserva- 
tions as follows : At Green Bay, Wis., Tulalip, W. T., and West- 
ern vShoshone, Nevada, tuberculosis causes 50 per cent, of the total 
Indian mortality. (Med. Rec. Aug. 13th, 1883). 

In considering the case of the Indians we must of course 
allow for the filth and confinement of the insanitary huts in which 
they live. But we must not forget that the Hudson Bay Indian 
and the Esquimaux live in huts just as close, through a still longer 
winter, and yet are remarkably free from tuberculosis. But then 
the more northern native tribes are not supplied with the tubercu- 
losis beef. 

Now, a critic may sa^- that these are mere broad generaliza- 
tions, and do not condescend to the mathematical and bacteriologi- 
cal proof which he is inclined to demand. I would reply that 
such generalization, wdien broad enough, and clear enough, may 
be even more certain and less misleading than a series of labora- 
tory experiments. If we find an infection which absolutely 
respects and avoids a country until given facilities have been fur- 
nished for its introduction, and which then spreads without limit, — 
if we find such infection advancing in parallel lines, in two differ- 
ent genera when once introduced, — if we find that in the absence 
of one of these genera wdiich furnishes food for the other, that the 
disease in the latter is confined within comparatively narrow^ limits, 
— if we find that with the prevalence of the infection in the food- 
furnishing genus, the ravages of the disease develop and increase in 
the food consuming genus, — and if we find this not in a single case 
only, but as the rule, have we not the best conceivable ground for 
the conclusion that the infection is propagated from the first named 
genus to the second ? Would the earnest truth seeker be justified 
in reaching any other conclusion, unless he could be furnished 
with the most ample proof of a fallacy in the evidence, and a most 
irrefragible and comprehensive testimony in rebuttal ? Before the 
days of bacteriolog}^ and bactriological experiment, we had through 
such evidence as that just given, arrivedat the firmest conviction 
that nearly all of our contagious diseases were the result of conta- 
gion alone, and that, if this factor could be excluded, the disease 
jvould be promptly and permanently exterminated. A persistent 
clamor was maintained against sanitarj^ restrictions, because the 
contagious diseases were alleged to arise spontaneously, but a 
survey of the whole field showed that they never attacked a new 
country save as the result of the introduction of an infecting animal 
or its product, and that once introduced they spread all the more 



DANGERS OF TUBERCULOUS ANIMALS 9 1 

virulentl}' because of the more susceptible soil furnished by the 
previously unaffected races. This was true of small pox, sheep 
pox, rinderpest, lung plague, foot and mouth disease, glanders, 
strangles, rabies, Texas fever. 

We were just as certain that these diseases were the result of 
contagion alone, as we are to-day with all the added light from 
the bacteriological laboratory. We knew^ that each and all could 
be stamped out by the prevention of contagion, no less than we do 
to-day. Bacteriology has come to corroborate and not in an}^ de- 
gree to w^eaken this conviction ? Far be it from me to depreciate 
bacteriology. It has thrown a flood of light upon all these affec- 
tions ; it has furnished us means of differentiation, of prevention, 
and of treatment which w^e could not otherwise have attained ; it 
has based our sanitary- system upon a new order of facts which we 
formerly suspected but of which we had not the full demonstra- 
tion ; and so far as it has determined the life histories of the 
pathogenic micro-organisms, it has largely elucidated the essential 
nature of the morbid processes induced. It has opened to us a 
new world and is bound to go on laying bare its as 3^et undiscovered 
elements of value. We cannot afford to part with bacteriology, 
and we cannot afford to undervalue or ignore even the smallest of 
its facts, but these facts must accord with all other facts in nature, 
and until this co-ordination shall have been accomplished under 
our eyes, w^e must not allow the new facts to negative the old and 
■well established ones. 

In laboratory' work the expert bacteriologist is often under 
the temptation to estimate the new truths at more than their 
intrinsic value, and to accord them a wider application than may 
be finally w^arranted by intelligent survey of the whole field. 
Nothing is easier than to adduce examples of this. Pasteur pro- 
nounced pigs and chickens insusceptible to anthrax. Like other 
experienced veterinarians I had no hesitation in at once pronounc- 
ing Pasteur w^rong, — not in his laboratory experiments, which 
were quite correct as regards these animals under the conditions 
of his experiments, — but assuredly so in his general application 
of his result to all conditions. To-day the whole world recognizes 
the susceptibility of chickens and swine under given conditions. 
Koch, on the basis of his laboratory experiments, proclaimed 
tuberculin to be nature's great cure for tuberculosis. I could 
never place any trust in its therapeutic utility for the reason that 
tuberculosis often persists for a long lifetime (the infected system 
all the time producing and circulating its own tuberculin) without 



92 JAMES LAW 

any satisfactory manifestation of a curative action. The tubercu- 
losis infection is only to a very limited extent self-restrictive, and 
there are to-day few remaining devotees of the Koch cure. It is 
now allowed that many cases of incipient and sliglit tuberculosis 
recover, but the deadly trend of generalized and advanced cases 
forbids the assumption that tuberculin is curative. Roux and 
Chamberland found that 300 times the fatal dose of a culture of 
bacillus tetani was rendered harmless if it were first mixed with 
the blood-serum of an immune animal, but their claim of the cura- 
tive action of this serum was very largely negatived when the 
serum was used upon men and animals which were already suffer- 
ing from the tenaic spasms. It proved of more value as a 
prophylactic before the toxins had already established their action 
on the ner\^e cell. 

But if bacteriologists need to be careful as to the extent of 
the claims based on given laborator^^ experiments, how much more 
should the layman be guarded as to wholsale deductions from lim- 
ited observations. We have no complaint to find with the bac- 
teriologist. Every well conceived and carefully conducted exper- 
iment is a new source of knowledge, and serves to enforce or 
qualify the knowledge to which we had previousl}^ attained. The 
scientist himself aims at the promulgation of the new facts with- 
out detriment to other truths which have already been well 
established. Sooner or later he can enlighten us upon the condi- 
tions which determine the older truths and those in which the 
new ones have sway, and the fields of science and sanitary work 
are commensuratel}' enlarged, and placed upon a broader and 
more substantial foundation. But when the ambitious layman 
gets hold of the solitary new result of laboratory work, he is not 
always deterred from giving it a world wide application, b}' any 
knowledge of old-established truths, or scientific sense of the 
many-sided work carried on in nature's laboratory. In this, more 
than in most other fields, "a little learning is dangerous," and 
under the wrong inspiration proceeding from an observation wdiicli 
is given a too wide application, beneficent work is liable to be 
arrested and grievous evil wrought. 

The bacteriology of contagious diseases is as yet in its infancy, 
and the field of investigation which it opens up is almost illimita- 
l)le. The laboratory experiment is perfectly trustworthy when 
we take into account all the conditions in which the result was 
produced, but when we apply this result generally, without taking 
into account llic infinity of modif>'ing conditions in the microbe, 



DANGERS OF TUBP:RCUL0US ANIMALS 93 

its recent life history and its environment, we are certain to fall 
into error sooner or later. An animal that is habitually insus- 
ceptible to anthrax or blackquarter becomes strongly susceptible 
when a little lactic acid is added. And such lactic acid is easily 
developed in the system by muscular work. Active exertion will, 
therefore, undo the force of the alleged immunity. The other- 
wise immune rat becomes very susceptible after he has been made 
to work at turning a wheel. Similarly the germ which has been 
rendered harmless to a given genus of animals, by cultivation in 
a given environment, is still often deadly to the newborn of the 
same genus. 

It is not the accomplished bacteriologist who is to blame in 
this matter. Dr. Theobald Smith found that the bacilli from 
human sputum grew more vigorously than the bovine bacillus on 
dog's serum, that it stained less deeply, that it tended to grow 
less short and more slender, and that it produced in rabbits only 
temporary drowsiness and recover}^ in two weeks. But he gives 
as freely the opposing indications. One sputum bacillus grew so 
feebl}^ in dog's serum that its culture was abandoned. He recog- 
nizes that fift}' per cent, of all bovine cases derived from bovine 
sources, remain localized. He states that "variations in the dose 
result in corresponding variations in the length of the disease, in 
its final termination, and in the extent and distribution of the 
lesions. ' ' He mentions as a possible theor}^ that the long semi- 
saprophytic life of the sputum bacillus may have lessened its 
pathogenic power, yet he found in one case that the bacilli from 
an acutely tuberculous lymph gland was even less pathogenic 
than that from the sputum. He acknowledges the probability of 
the transmission of the bovine bacillus to man in these words : "It 
seems to me that, accepting the clinical evidence at hand, bovine 
tuberculosis may be transmitted to children when the body is 
overpowered b}^ large numbers of bacilli as in udder tuberculosis 
or when certain unknown favorable conditions exist." Again in 
view of the assumed lessened susceptibility of man to the bovine 
bacillus, he says, "The occasional entrance of bovine bacilli into 
the human bod}^ might open the way for the introduction of a 
virus of a higher level, provided opportunity for subsequent 
transmission be afforded." 

These points culled from advanced sheets of his paper which 
Dr. Smith has kindly sent me, show that his position is not 
extreme nor objectionable in this matter, and the danger comes 



94 JAMKS LAW 

mainly from a misapprehension of his true position by men who 
come to the question with minds warped by prejudice. 

In this connection it is important to note Nocard's latest ob- 
servations, that the bacillus of human sputum produces lesions 
in the Guineapig having the character of those caused by the 
avian bacillus, and that the bouillon cultures of the human 
bacillus, when enclosed in collodion capsules and sul)jected to 
cultures of 3 to 6 months, in the peritoneal cavity of the chick- 
en apparently assume all the qualities of the avian variety. Af- 
ter three such passages through the fowl of 4 to 6 months each, 
the collodion imprisoned bacillus kills the fowl upon which it is 
directly inoculated, producing the characteristic lesions of avian 
tuberculosis. 

Without, therefore, in any way detracting from the value of 
the experiments of Kruse and Smith showing the production of 
a local tuberculosis in cattle from inoculation with the tubercle 
of man, or of the results of accidental inoculations in which 
local lesions only have occurred in man from the implanting of 
the tubercle of the ox, we cannot safely discard the equally well 
attested facts of generalized tuberculosis from both forms of in- 
fection, and of the habitual prevalence in the same localities over 
the whole world of tuberculosis in man and ox. 

Further experiment is wanted to clear up questions that are 
yet obscure. What varied conditions beside those already known 
tend to render the bovine bacillus less adapted to propagation in 
man ? What conditions render the bacillus of man less adapted 
to the ox ? What conditions in the human and bovine systems 
respectively render them severall}^ specially susceptible to the 
bacillus from the other genus? We recognize differences which 
we cannot as yet trace to their intimate causes. We habitually 
find the greatest difficulty in starting a culture from the living 
animal on the culture medium usually employed. But when 
once started there is usually no difficulty in continuing this cul- 
ture indefinitely in the artificial medium. We cannot yet fully 
explain the difficulty in the one case and the facility in the other. 
We wait hopefully for the light which bacteriology and phj^sio- 
logical chemistry nuist one da}- throw on these questions. Mean- 
while we must keep all the known facts in mind, and in our san- 
itary work guard against the dangers which come from a too 
exclusive attention to one class of facts. 



DANGERS OF TUB^RCUI^OUS ANIMALS 95 

VOLUNTARY MUSCLE OF CATTLE SELDOM TUBERCULOUS. 

Keeping this principle in view, we must recognize that the 
voluntary nuiscles of bovine animals are less frequently affected 
b}' tubercle than is the case with that of the other domestic 
animals. The}^ are therefore less liable to convey the infection 
through ingestion of the flesh than are pigs. A partial truth is 
assumed to be a general one and it is claimed that beef is never 
dangerous. But here again the truth lies midway. The mus- 
cular tissue of cattle is sometimes the seat of tubercle, though 
less frequently than in pigs, and the lymph glands that lie among 
the muscles are quite frequentl}^ involved in cattle. It is there- 
fore dangerous and misleading to assume that all raw beef is 
harmless, and even when sound it is always liable to contamina- 
tion with hands and knives, when tubercle exists in intermus- 
cular glands or in internal organs. 

NONINFECTING MEAT AND MILK MAY CONTAIN THE 
PYROGENIC TUBERCULIN. 

Another point which cannot be ignored is the presence in 
the blood and milk of tuberculous cattle of the thermogenic 
product of the bacillus. We know that if this is injected sub- 
cutem into the tuberculous man it develops fever, and stimulates 
the inflammator}^ and necrogenic processes in the seat of the 
tubercle. This last process is especially noticeable in lupus. 
The milk therefore and the meat may be entirely free from the 
tubercle bacillus, and yet ma}^ hasten the generalization of the 
tuberculosis in the already infected consumer. This is compar- 
able to the constant reinfections established in the tuberculous 
animal confined in a close building with other consumptives or 
with an accumulation of its own products. In either case the 
tendency is to hasten the disease to a fatal issue. 

But here again there is a qualifying circumstance. It is a 
function of the liver to decompose and render harmless the toxins 
which reach it through the portal vein. Hence, much larger 
doses of tuberculin can be given by the mouth than by hypoder- 
mic injection. 

A certain proportion however may escape the sanative action 
of the liver in connection with hepatic derangement or accel- 
erated circulation, and this is likely to prove a constant stim- 
ulus to the advance of the disease. 



96 JAMKvS LAW 

There is always the further danger that the infecting bacilH 
from wliich the tii])ercuHn is l)eing formed, may suddenly become 
generalized, being washed on with the circulating blood, so tra- 
versing all the vascular tissues, colonizing in one or many of the 
organs, and escaping in the milk or other secretion. 

I have hinted at a few of the dangers attending the con- 
sumption of meat products from tuberculous animals. The sub- 
ject of the sanitary care of such animals has not Ijeen assigned 
me. I shall say this, however, that the nature of such sanitary 
work will be influenced largely by the object. If the aim is the 
final extinction of the bacillus tuberculosis we cannot be too 
careful to close all avenues by which it may gain access to the 
system of man or beast. If, on the other hand, we aspire only 
to a restriction of its prevalence, it ma}' ser\'e the purpose to 
destroy only the badly diseased and to condemn only the badly 
affected products, while the slight, latent and recoverable cases 
are in a measure ignored. 



PAPER PRESENTED AT THE FIFTH ANNUAL 

MEETING OF THE ASSOCIATION OF 

VETERINARY FACULTIES. 



THE CO-OPERATION OF THE VARIOUS EXAMINING BOARDS AND 
THE DESIRABILITY OF ESTABLISHING AN INTERSTATE EX- 
AMINING BOARD THE CERTIFICATE OF WHICH WOULD BE 
ACCEPTED BY THE BOARDS OF ALL STATES. 

BY JAMKS IvAW. 

Reprinted from the Proceedings of the United States Veterinary 
Medical Association, September, i8g8. Pp. igg-206. 



Only in recent years has there been instituted in any of the 
United States legislation controlling the practice of medicine or 
veterinary medicine. Wherever such legislation has been 
secured it has been at the instance of the practitioners. In 
assuming credit for the advantages secured by such legislation 
we must also take whatever blame may be justly charged upon 
those who inspired the laws in question. That the laws regulat- 
ing veterinary medicine are beneficial none of us will seek to 
deny : that there are objectionable things incident to the working 
of these laws many have felt. That the advantages far exceed 
the disadvantages we will all agree. We can have no desire to 
go back to the days of anarchy in medical or veterinary practice. 

The question then is mainly what objectionable features is it 
possible for us to get rid of without sacrificing the indispensable 
advantages ? 

Among the grievances which attach to the working of the 
State law regulating the practice of veterinary medicine, the fol- 
lowing are prominent : 

I St. It impairs the sense of unity of the veterinary profes- 
sion. This is a very serious drawback but it cannot be claimed 
that the law in question is its only factor of causation. The same 
estrangement existed before, among the graduates of the diiferent 
schools, and in enlarging the clan or clique from the school to 



200 JAMES LAW 

the state, the vStatute has taken a step in the right direction, and 
done much to unify the body of practitioners within the limits of 
the Commonwealth. To this extent therefore the Statute makes 
for unity as against sectionalism. 

2d. It interferes with interstate practice. The prosperous 
city practitioner, whose clients have largely gone to the seaside, 
washes to spend his own vacation at a watering place in another 
state, and incidentally to continue his practice among his own 
city clients abroad, and among others. But he is debarred by the 
statute. To this matter there are two sides. The city practi- 
tioner wishes to accommodate his client, and the client prefers his 
trusted city adviser. He can secure him by visit, for the Statute 
usually recognizes and authorizes consultations with practitioners 
from outside the state. This is expensive and disadvantageous 
but it can be done. On the other hand there is the local practi- 
tioner, who serves the watering place during the dull season, but 
who sees his practice and living absorbed by this well-to-do city 
practitioner during his natural harvest time. He may well claim 
that the law which protects his competitor in the wealthy city, 
should be respected by him in the seaside towai. Is it not better 
that the interloper should be compelled to qualify in the state 
which he has adopted for his summer residence, than that the 
law should be nullified and all its beneficial provisions set at 
naught ? 

3d. A prospective student cannot choose his school for the 
advantages it offers him, irrespective of the demands of the state 
in which he proposes to practice. 

The supposed grievance here is more specious than substan- 
tial. It is open to the student to secure his education in any 
school, and afterward to go before the board of examiners of the 
state in which he proposes to practice, instead of that of the state 
in which he was educated. He must, of course, see to it that he 
enters a school which maintains a standard high enough to be 
recognized and registered, by the examining board of the state of 
his prospective adoption. We cannot for a moment advocate the 
acceptance of a certificate of education in a school giving a two 
years' course, as equivalent to the three years demanded by the 
statute, we cannot suggest the acceptance of a five months aca- 
demic year, if the law demands a year of nine months, and we can 
not recommend that the board of a state which demands a high 
matriculation examination, shall condone the absence or legal 
insufficiency of this preliminary examination. The grievance of 



CO-OPERATION OP EXAMINING BOARDS 20I 

the prospective student is therefore by no means so great as it 
appears and by a little foresight and judicious inquiry he can 
easil}' prepare himself for practice in the state of his choice. There 
is really nothing in his supposed claim or grievance that deserves 
a moment's consideration apart from the desire to be allowed to 
practice in a given state, on the basis of preparatory work and 
accomplishments below those demanded by the laws of that state, 
and enforced on the other practitioners in that state. 

Such a claim (that an alien should be admitted on a lower 
requirement than the citizen is so utterly preposterous that to 
simply state it is to put it out of court. 

4th. The most serious grievance and the only tenable one 
is that of the new graduate who has not decided upon a location 
in which to practice but who receives encouragement to settle in 
another state than the one in which he has received his degree 
and his license to practice. With him may be classed the old 
practitioner who wishes for any reason to move from one state 
into another, and who does not care at his age to face an exam- 
ination. Here there is some appearance of hardship but after all 
it is more in seeming than in reality. A particular state has 
enacted in its statutes that no one shall be henceforth licensed 
to practice within her borders who is not possessed of certain 
definite qualifications. Our aggrieved student, if he had any 
expectation or aspiration to practice in that state should have 
entered a school in which he would have been furnished with 
these qualifications. In seeking his education through an easier 
channel he deliberately excluded himself from the right to prac- 
tice in that state. Who is to blame ? And who should be called 
upon to correct the fault ? If the state must admit him on qual- 
ifications that are below the standard required by its statute, it 
introduces an incomparabl}^ greater evil. It does wrong to every 
law-abiding veterinarian in the state who entered on practice by 
complying with the prescribed standard. It offers a premium to 
the under educated alien who is not law-abiding, at the expense 
of the educated citizen who is law-abiding. It fosters the low 
class school provided it is outside its own limits, at the expense 
of the school of a higher class within its limits. It certifies to the 
stock owners of the commonwealth that they can trust their live 
stock, as safely in the hands of a man educated in a neighboring 
state to a low standard, as in those of the man educated at home 
up to the legal standard. If the state is to admit to practice the 
under educated alien, it should begin b}^ cutting down the require- 



202 JAMES LAW 

ments demanded of its citizens in its home schools. In a case 
like this every step taken by the state for the relief of the alien, 
who is not up to the state requirement, is a lowering of the stand- 
ard of veterinary education. It is a direct infringement of the law, 
and this in favor of a degradation of the profession. This should 
not l)e countenanced by such a body as this. 

ICven in the case of the old practitioner it is very question- 
able whether the law of higher requirement can be set aside with 
safety. In securing the various state laws regulating veterinary 
practice, it became necessary to admit to license to practice all 
practitioners of several years' standing, even those without a 
degree and in too many cases without education, and these men 
are entitled to all the privileges of the educated veterinarian 
within the commonwealth. But an adjacent state is under no 
such obligation, and if this uneducated practitioner desires to move 
into such other state, it would be poor policy to certify to his 
qualifications by granting a license, unless he shall have complied 
with the requirements of the state of his adoption. 

The laws regulating veterinary practice usually contain a 
clause by which a definite number of years of reputable practice 
may be accepted as the equivalent of a college course, or even of 
the matriculation requirements. But they should not, and our 
New York law does not, allow that this shall stand in place of 
an examination for license. To secure a great future good a 
state may wisely endorse for the time an old established and tem- 
porary wrong which has established a vested right. 

But no such consideration should warrant the uncalled for 
introduction of such wrong into a neighboring commonwealth. 

If the state imposes such a barrier against the entrance of 
the nongraduate practitioner from the neighboring state, is it not 
equally called upon to admit the graduate practitioner only under 
the required test ? It may well be argued that the experienced 
graduate practitioner who has not kept himself in such relation 
to the literature of his profession as to enable him to pass easily 
such an examination as is given for license is not a desirable 
acquisition. It may also be claimed that the admission of the 
old practitioner without test, into a state which subjects all new 
graduates to a very searching test and a high standard, may prove 
a bid for the introduction of mediocrity or inefficiency, which the 
state thereby endorses and commends to its stock owners. The 
old practitioner who cannot hold his own against the competitor 
fresh from even the poorest schools, may sell out and moving into 



CO-OPERATION OF EXAMINING BOARDS 203 

a state in which the standard is higher, may start with all the 
false plumage which the state endorsement can give him. I do 
not wish to commit myself irrevocably on this question of the 
graduate practitioner, but with my present light I am quite satis- 
fied with the New York state law which requires examination as 
a prerequisite to license. 

Having thus cleared the field somewhat of questions involved 
we may enquire how far can the different state licensing authori- 
ties reciprocate by accepting the results of the examinations made 
of each other ? 

In facing this question, w^e must conclude what is just and 
proper, or what is admissable, rather than what is at present 
legal. Yet there are certain leading constitutional requirements 
which cannot be overstepped. We cannot secure a national 
examining nor licensing board which can have any authority in 
the individual state. We can have no conglomerate private 
board (composed of representatives of the different states) which 
can exercise any authority within their several boundaries. 

Congress cannot impose such a board upon the individual 
state for the administration of its internal government. It is 
difl&cult to see how such an examining or licensing body can be 
of any value in conferring an authoritative degree or license 
which may have the force of law in the different states. 

If it were possible to have each member of such examining 
or licensing bodj^ appointed in each state independently as a state 
official, it would I believe be proper to recognize their action as 
the action of each state and as binding within its limits. 

To give this arrangement the color of legitimacy the candi- 
dates for places on the board would have to be elected by the 
great body of veterinarians throughout the land. It would then 
be representative and carry a moral weight which it could not 
attain to if nominated or created by a small select body like the 
United States Veterinary Medical Association from which the 
expense of active membership excludes the great body of practicing 
vetermarians. 

An arrangement of this kind would at once develop that or- 
ganic unity of the whole profession in the United States, which 
has been one of its greatest desiderata up to the present. It 
would beget an esprit de corps and a sense of individual responsi- 
bility and power which do much to elevate, reform and ennoble 
the profcvssion. 

Among drawbacks to such a proposal may be named the neces- 



204 JAMES LAW 

sit}' that the board in question should sit in eacli state for the 
examination of candidates, for although their decisions made in 
one state might be considered valid in another, yet it is manifestly 
impracticable to have the candidates for graduation assemble 
from all the states, at one grand rendezvous. The men of Cali- 
fornia and Maine could not be compelled to attend in Kansas City, 
nor the New York and Philadelphia men in San Francisco. There 
would be resulting difficulties at every step. The examining 
board would be so frequently on the move from one part of the 
country to the other that they could not well maintain home prac- 
tice, and their remuneration and the expenses of their frequent 
long journeys could not be met by examination fees, but must be 
provided for in some other way. In short with all its advantages, 
this plan of a national examining board is far from being an ideal 
one, and reduced to practice would prove unwieldy, awkward and 
virtually impracticable. 

It entails besides the adoption of the very provision the ab- 
sence of which stands in the way of the mutual acceptance in each 
state of the license given by every other state : The adoption, 
namely, of an uniform standard of veterinary education for all 
states alike. This is a sine qua non to au}^ acceptable or success- 
ful system and, if once this is adopted, we will do well to abandon 
any unnecessary machinery and have the licensing boards of the 
different states accept as equivalents the examinations made by 
the official boards of sister states. 

THE ONLY POSSIBLE UNIFORM REQUIREMENT. 

This brings us back to the question : What standard of edu- 
cation can be adopted by all ? The only standard which can be 
universally accepted is the highest that is demanded by statute in 
any one state. No state can righteously admit to practice, a man 
from a school outside its borders at a lower standard than it de- 
mands of the graduate of the school within its domain. Without 
further argument, therefore, any accepted uniform standard must 
be the highest standard maintained by any one state. Deny this 
and you deny the possibilit}^ of obtaining any national board and 
any standard or license that will be universally acceptable. 

By the adoption of a lower standard you would not only set 
a limit to all future advancement of the profession, but you would 
demand a retreat from the best standard which is already in force. 

As representatives of the veterinary teachers of America we 
can not give our voices for a compulsory lowering of the standard 



CO-OPERATION OF EXAMINING BOARDS 205 

of any state. If all states and schools are prepared to elevate 
their requirements to the level of the highest now in force, the 
adoption of reciprocity as regards the examinations and licenses 
of different states is simple and just. But if all are not prepared 
to rise to the highest existing standard, such general reciprocity 
becomes impossible, and an alternative course must be devised 
and adopted. 

RECIPROCITY OF STATES HAVING THE SAME STANDARD. 

I can see onl}^ one satisfactory way of reaching such an alter- 
native : namely for those states, which have the same or equiva- 
lent standards to adopt a system of reciprocity among themselves 
to the exclusion of all those which maintain a lower standard. 
We might thus have two, three or four standards for as many 
different groups of states. The licenses to practice issued by 
standard No. i. (the highest) would then be accepted all over the 
United States, but no licenses under standards 2, 3 or 4 would 
render the holder eligible to practice in the states which held to 
the standard No. i. 

The licenses to practice issued according to standard No. 2 
(the second grade) would admit to practice in all states adhering 
to standard No. 2, and to 3 and 4 as well, but not to the states 
maintaining standard No. i, and so on through the different 
grades of 3 and 4. 

This principle is simple, and equitable ; it requires no 
machinery and no expense that is not already provided for in 
every state w^hich maintains a legal standard at all ; it should and 
would be acceptable to every fair minded man in the profession 
and out ot it. 

The student can find no fault, for just as he knows that he 
can practice nowhere without a degree, he will also know that to 
practice in a given state he must have a degree of the grade 
which that state demands, and he must enter a school which will 
raise him to that grade. The practitioner can find no fault for 
not only will he have the right to move into a state which main- 
tains the standard demanded in his own, or into any one satisfied 
with a lower standard, but he can also enter one which maintains 
higher grade by passing the examination imposed. 

The schools should be placated since those which prefer the 
shorter and cheaper course will cater for such students as prefer 
to confine their practice to the states having the lower standard, 



2o6 JAMES LAW 

while those that give the longer and more thorough course will 
cater for those who aspire to practice in states tliat maintain the 
higher standard, or who wish to secure the right to practice in 
any state which offers the best prospect. Each school will reap 
the advantage of the special standard it may adopt : tlie shorter 
and less thorough one attracting the larger numbers, who cannot 
afford the means nor time to pursue the more extended course, 
while the school with a more extended and elaborate curriculum, 
will look for those only who can afford this, and who hope to 
secure the prospective privileges and advantages. 

Everyone will know definitely where he stands, and there will 
be no ground for the current complaint of the short course men 
that they are not admitted to the privileges secured by the long 
course, and no excuse for exclusion by the licensing board of one 
state of the licensees of a neighboring state which maintains higher 
requirements, until the second state will accept the licenses granted 
by the first on a lower requirement. 

CONCLUSION. 

In conclusion, I can see no way of reaching a satisfactory sys- 
tem of reciprocity of state examinations and licenses through the 
cumbrous machinery of a national board of examiners. The sat- 
isfactory operation of such a board can onl}- be secured by raising 
the requirements of all states to the highest existing standard. If 
this uniform elevation of the standard to the highest present re- 
quirement can be secured the national examining board will be 
rendered unnecessary as the different state licenses should thus 
l)ecome interchangeable. So long as a certain number of states are 
unprepared to adopt the highest existing requirements, the only 
alternative is to group the states according to their standards, and 
let there be reciprocity of license among the states of any given 
group, and acceptance of their licenses by all states holding to a 
lower requirement. 



Bulletin 150. July, 1898. 

Cornell University Agricultural Experiment Station, 

ITHACA, N. Y. 

VETERINARY DIVISION. 

Tube rculosis i n Cattle 

and its Control. 



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NEW YORK STATE VETERINARY COLLEGE. 



By JAMES LAW. 



pubushed by the university, 

ithaca, n. y. 

i8q8. 



OROANIZAq^ION. 



BOARD OF CONTROL : 
THE TRUvSTEES OF THE UNIVERSITY. 



THE AGRICULTURAL COLLEGE AND STATION COUNCIL. 

JACOB GOULD SCHURMAN, President of the University. 

FRANKLIN C. CORNELL, Trustee of the University. 

ISAAC P. ROBERTS, Director of the College and Experiment Station. 

EMMONS L. WILLIAMS, Treasurer of the"^Universitv. 

LIBERTY H. BAILEY, Professor of Horticulture. 

JOHN H. COMSTOCK, Professor of Entomology. 



STATION AND UNIVERSITY EXTENSION STAFF 



I. P. ROBERTS, Agriculture. 
G. C. CALDWELL, Chemistry. 
JAMES LAW, Veterinarv Science. 
J. H. COMSTOCK, Entomologv. 
L. H. BAILEY, Horticulture. 
H. H. WING, Dairv Husbandry. 
G. F. ATKINSON, Botany. 
M. V. S LINGER LAND, Entomology. 
G. W. CAVANAUGH, Chemistrv. 
L. A. CLINTON, Agriculture. 

B. M. DUGGAR, Botany. 

J. W. SPENCER, Extension Work. 
J. L STONE, Sugar Beet Investigation. 
MISS M. F. ROGERS, Nature-Study. 
A. L. KNISELY, Chemistry. 

C. E. HUNN, Horticulture. 

W. W. HALL, Dairv Husbandry. 

H. P. GOULD, Horticulture. 

W. MILLER, Floriculture. 

G. N. LAUMAN, Horticulture. 

A. R. W^ARD, Dairy Bacteriology. 

L. ANDERSON, Dairy Husbandry. 



OFFICERS OF THE STATION, 

I. P. ROBERTS. Director. 
E. L. WILLIAMS, Treasurer. 
EDWARD A. BUTLER, Clerk. 



TUBERCULOSIS IN CATTLE AND ITS 
CONTROL. 

BY JAMES LAW. 



PREVALENCE AND RELATIVE IMPORTANCE. 

Our interest in tuberculosis centers in two leading questions : 
First, its prevalence in man ; and second its diffusion among 
domestic animals which furnish food for man. If we consider 
the disease in man only, we must view it first in its sanitary 
relations, and, as regards the measures available for its restric- 
tion, in its moral bearings. If we consider the disease in the 
domestic animals we enter largely into its economic bearing, 
but in view of the use of these animals and their products for 
human food the sanitar}^ and moral questions must also be 
admitted. 

MAN : GENERAL MORTALITY. 

In a man it is admitted that, in civilized countries, where data 
can be secured, one death in seven is due to tuberculosis. Allow- 
ing 15 deaths per 1,000 on our 70.000,000 this would furnish 
150,000 deaths per annum from tuberculosis in the United 
States. Dr. Osier, of Johns Hopkins University, says this is a 
very low estimate. A war which should leave 150,000 dead on 
the battlefield every year would rouse the nation to put a speedy 
end to the destruction. The mortality from tuberculosis exceeds 
the combined deaths from war, famine, plague, cholera, 3^ellow< 
fever and smallpox. Yet we have those among us who deprecate 
any intelligent measure for the extinction or restriction of this 
source of such a constant mortality and loss. 

The mortality from tuberculosis in man rises far above this 
ratio when conditions are favorable to its propagation. In some 
large cities (Vienna) the ratio of deaths from tuberculosis is more 
than double what it is for the entire country. In the Marquesas 



4 Bulletin 150. 

Islands it rises to 33 per cent of the total mortalit}', and in some 
of onr Indian reservations to 50 per cent. (Trcon, Holden.) 

TUBERCULOSIS IN ANIMALS. 

Tuberculosis is rare in cold blooded animals, but Sibley has 
seen it in reptiles in a state of confinement. 

In birds it is common and destructive, but not readily trans- 
ferred from bird to mammal. The bacillus of the bird is usually 
a modified form, which prefers a special avian habitation. 

Wild mammals in confinement suffer excessively'. In men- 
ageries apes die almost exclusively from tuberculosis, while kan- 
garoos, deer, elk, gazelle, antilope aud lions are common victims. 
The rats, mice and other vermin about our houses and barns 
also contract the disease and all must be recognized as possible 
bearers. 

Cattle suffer more than any other domesticated animal, and 
tuberculous cattle are especially to be dreaded seeing that they 
furnish so much food for consumption by man. The Danish 
herds which were said to be sound until after the importation of 
Schleswig and vShorthorn cattle in 1840 and 1850 are now gen- 
erally infected, 17 per cent of the cattle slaughtered showing 
tuberculosis, while over 60 per cent of the dairy herds showed 
the disease under the tuberculin test. Statistics from German 
abattoirs give, for cows 6.9 per cent tuberculosis, for oxen 3.6 
per cent, for bulls 2.6 per cent, and for yearlings and calves i 
per cent. In Berlin abattoirs 15 per cent proved tuberculous. 
By the tuberculin test of New York State herds (2.417 head) in 
1894 16.75 P^r (i^w'^ proved tuberculous. This is undoubtedly too 
high an estimate for the entire cattle of the State, as the herds 
were examined because the owners suspected them and requested 
examination by the tuberculosis commission. Yet it cannot be 
said that this represents the extreme of infection as I have found 
one herd of 60 and another of 200 in country districts of this 
state tuberculous without exception. These represented cases 
in which no precaution had been taken to prevent contagion. 

Swine are also very subject to tuberculosis, especially through 
the consumption of the uncooked offal of slaughter houses and of 
the milk of tuberculous cattle. 



TrBKRCULOsis IN Cattlk 5 

Rats and mice readily contract the disease from feeding in the 
nianao^ers of tuberculous cattle and swine, and in their turn 
carry the disease from manger to manger and from barn to barn. 

Rabbits, Guinea pio^s and goats when left at large do not readily 
contract the disease but are very susceptible to the infection 
when it is conveyed to them experimentally. 

Horses, asses, dogs, cats and sheep do not readily contract the 
disease under ordinary circumstances, but this cannot be 
attributed mainly to insusceptibility since one and all take it 
easily when inoculated. The habitual immunity is therefore 
largely due to the absence of opportunity for infection, and in 
some degree also to the outdoor life and the well developed state 
of the muscular system and blood. For the house dog and cat 
infection has often come from eating scraps from the plate of 
tuberculous people and in some instances from licking up the 
expectoration. At Alfort only 40 dogs were found tuberculous 
in g, 000 post mortem examinations. 

TUBERCULOSIS CONTAGIOUS. 

That this disease is contagious was recognized by many of the 
medical lights of the i6th to the i8th centuries. Morgagni, 
Laennec, Cullen, Wickman, Valsalvi and Sarconi, and for ani- 
mals, Ruhling, Krunitz, Fromage, Huzard and others leave evi- 
dence corroborating this belief. The civil and ecclesiastical 
laws joined in forbidding the use of the meat from tuberculous 
animals, and in prescribing the destruction or disinfection of 
articles that might have become infected from tuberculous 
persons. 

This was placed on a solid basis by the many successful experi- 
mental inoculations of the disease by Villemin in 1865 and by 
his numerous followers, who conve3^ed the disease by feeding 
tuberculous matter, and by causing the animals to inhale tuber- 
culous liquid in the form of spray. Finnally, Robert Koch, of 
Berlin, completed the demonstration, placing the keystone in the 
great arch of evidence, by the discovery of the tubercle bacillus, 
which he invariably found in the diseased tissues and in no 
others, and which he cultivated in pure culture in glycerine 



6 Bulletin 150. 

bouillon, and inoculated successfully upon a lar^^e number of 
animals. 

Since that time (1882) his position has been corroborated by- 
all competent observers, and there is no truth in medicine more 
thorouo;hly established to-day than the essential connection be- 






r 



N V ( 



o> 



I. — A drawing from a preparation of tubercle Imcilli mag- 
nified about 1000 diameters. 

tween tuberculosis and the tubercle bacillus. This bacillus has 
been so often conveyed with destructive effect from man to the 
smaller mammals, and even to cattle, that the essential identity 
of human and bovine tuberculosis must be accepted. The state- 
ment requires the qualification that the bacillus, like other patho- 
genic germs, adapts itself to the conditions of the medium on 
which it grows, and therefore, in the first place to the particular 
genus of animals in which it has been living for some time, and 
is therefore often less ready to grow in one of another kind 



Tuberculosis in Cattle. 7 

than in one of the same genus. The most extreme example of 
this is found in the bacilhis of the bird which can only with dif- 
ficulty be made to grow in the sy.stem of the mammal. 

But even in the mammal the virulence of the bacillus for 
other mammals of a different genus or species may be very varied. 

Theobald Smith obtained, from a pet bear that had been owned 
by a tuberculous master, bacilli which seemed to have no ill effect 
when inoculated on cattle, and had a somewhat reduced virulence 
for Guinea pigs. Kruse found bacilli from human sputum, and 
others from the lungs of cattle which produced only local tuber- 
cle in Guinea pigs. 

Clinical observations show that the same is true as between 
different individuals of the same genus and species, and hence 
we find instances of tuberculosis in given herds, which continue 
for a number of years with few cases showing generalized and 
fatal results ; and other instances of herds in which the disease 
makes rapid progress, soon affecting all or nearly all of the ani- 
mals, and proving fatal to a number in rapid succession. 

This modification of the germ b}^ its surroundings is again 
well showm in the common experience that it is usuall}' difficult 
to start (on artificial media in flasks) the growth of tubercle 
bacilli taken direct from the animal, but when once started and 
accustomed to grow on such new materials, it may be started 
again in fresh culture w4th great certaint3\ 

In stating, therefore, that the one and only cause of tuber- 
culosis is the tubercle bacillus, it is not to be understood that it is 
affirmed that that bacillus is at all times, under all circumstances 
and to all animals, equally virulent and destructive. If the con- 
ditions are favorable it will prove very deadl}^ while, if unfavor- 
able, it may linger for a time without producing much obvious 
effect on thu general health. Its presence, however, in any 
herd is a constant menace to all members of the herd, to the 
attendants, to the consumers of the meat and dair}^ products of 
the herd, and to other herds into which members of this herd 
may be sent. It is also worthy of note, that the power of 
adaptation of the germ to its surroundings, introduces this 
further element of danger that, as it becomes adapted to its life in 
a given animal or in the different members of a closely bred 



S BULLKTIX 150. 

lierd, in the natural course of events it must become better and 
better adapted to survival in that particular animal and breed, 
and hence increasingly dangerous to all of its members. This 
is one reason why tuberculosis is so liable to become intensified 
in special herds of thoroughbred stock, and why common cattle 
with a varied ancestry will sometimes seem to offer a longer resist- 
ance to the affection. It may also explain the fact that with 
ample exposure the disease does not always pass from men to 
cattle and from cattle to man. 

Yet it would be folly to argue from such data that the disease, 
when present in an occult form in a herd, may be safely ignored, 
and that the products of such herd may be safely consumed by 
man. The very adaptability of the tubercle bacillus sufhcientl}^ 
contradicts this conclusion. The mere continuous presence of 
the bacillus in a given S3^stem, human or brute, is the means of 
securing a better and still better adaptation to that form of life, 
and a greater and still greater measure of potency, so that when 
the health of the host or exposed animal is in any way reduced 
it may at once become deadly and far reaching in its evil effects. 

CHANNELS OF INFECTION. 

Among the channels of infection the following ma}^ be noted : 
I. Inhalation by the breath. This is perhaps the most com- 
mon method of infection and is usually followed by tuberculosis 
of the throat, lungs, and lymphatic glands of the chest. Expec- 
torations and other infecting discharges are dried up and raised 
in dust so that they can be easil}^ inhaled. Cases of this kind 
have been observed in buildings in w^hich a victim of advanced 
tuberculosis was employed. The other employes fell victims, 
one after another, to the infection. They are quite common in 
infected barns, in which the virulent dust carried in the air is 
inhaled by a number of animals. Experimentally it has been 
shown by mixing virulent matters in liquids, atomizing them 
and causing animals to inhale the spray. In the hands of Vill- 
emin, Koch, Thaon and Tappeiner this almost infallibly produced 
tuberculosis of the lungs. In man too, many infections and 
reinfections have been traced to the dust from the soiled handker- 
chiefs. On the other hand it must be distinctlv understood that 



Tuberculosis in Cattle. 9 

the breath of the tuberculous is not in itself infecting, and if 
care is taken to prevent the diffusion of the infested solids and 
liquids and their distribution in dust, the presence of a tubercu.- 
lous individual is not a threat to others adjacent. 

2. Infection through food and drmk. A whole host of experi- 
menters have conveyed the disease by mixing infecting pus or 
an emulsion of the tubercle with ordinary food. The .same has 
been often accomplished with milk from the infected animal 
even to cases in which the mammary glands seemed to be per- 
fectly sound. The danger of course is enhanced in ratio with 
the number of bacilli present, so that one diseased cow in a large 
herd leads to little infection if the milk of the whole herd is 
mixed. On the other hand such admixture of the virulent milk 
with the wholesome contaminates the whole to some extent, and 
inoculation with such mixed milk will often convey the disea.se 
when the animals drinking it do not seem to be injured by it. 

The infection usually takes place through the tonsils, 
pharynx or bowels. In ruminating animals it may attack the 
first three stomachs the contents of which are neutral or nearl}^ 
so, but it rarely attacks the true digesting stomach the secretion 
of which is strongly acid. The bacillus is liable to perish or to 
be so distributed by the acid in passing through the stomach that 
it is largely shorn of its danger. Among the conditions that 
favor its safe passage through the stomach may be named indi- 
gestion and a too rapid progress of the undigested food through 
the stomach, a condition which is especiall}^ common in 3'oung 
animals : overloading of stomach : the ingestion of an excess 
of cold water just after a meal, thereby rousing excessive ver- 
micular movement of the stomach and premature expuLson of its 
undigested contents ; and the enclosure of the infected matter in 
a mass of fat which the gastric secretions are impotent to digest 
or emulsionize. 

3. Inoculation in vjounds. This is a common channel of infec- 
tion in man. Accidental inoculations — in making post mortem 
examinations have been often noticed since the case of Lsennec ; 
or in making artificial cultures in the laboratory ; or in washing 
the clothes of tuberculous persons ; or in dressing the tubercu- 
lous sores ; or in making operations, notably that of circum- 



lo Bulletin 150. 

cision ; or in inserting earrings formerly used by tuberculous 
persons ; or in inhaling the infecting dust through a nose excor- 
iated by a catarrh ; or in handling infected carcasses in the 
butcher's shops ; or finally through mouth or throat abrasions 
caused by hard indigestible materials. 

4. Through the yyiaminary glands. This gland is especially 
subject to wounds by the horns and to sores and abrasions in con- 
nection with milking which form entrance-channels for the bacilli 
present in the dust of the barn. The opening of the teat is also 
a door of entry through which the germ, may invade the milk 
ducts and glandular tissues. It is not to be forgotten, however, 
that the milk gland is especiably liable to become infected 
through the blood which is sent in such enormous quantities 
through its tissues, and is liable to implant any bacilli which may 
have entered the blood stream. The gland is, therefore, espe- 
cially liable to infection from without and within and once infected 
is a source of the greatest danger to the milk consumer. 

5. Through sexual congress. In cows the generative organs 
are often the seat of tuberculosis inducing nymphomania or ster- 
ilit3^ and the disease has been repeatedly produced experimen- 
tally by smearing the infecting matter on the penis or introduc- 
ing it into the vagina. The bacillus has even been found in the 
semen of an infected male so that transmission by this channel 
to the female can be easily understood. All this has a very direct 
bearing upon the question of the propriety of using the same 
sire on the tuberculous and sound, and of the admission of 
females from tuberculous herds to be served by the sires in sound 
ones. 

6. Through heredity. Hereditary transmission of tuberculosis 
has long ])een recognized, and until recently accorded a role much 
more important than its infrequenc}' \vould warrant. Various 
conditions militate against its occurrence ; the fcttus is essen- 
tially a carnivorous animal, living on the secretions of the dam 
and not on the direct products of the vegetable kingdom. 
It has, therefore, that measure of resistance which inheres 
in the flesh feeding as compared with the vegetable feeding 
animal. It may be infected through the semen of the sire, but 
the rule appears to be that the ovum thus early affected rarely 



Tuberculosis in Cattle. i i 

attains to its full intrauterine development. It may be affected 
from the tuberculous generative organs of the dam, but here 
again abortion is liable to cut short the existence of the embryo. 
In spite of all drawbacks a certain small proportion of the off- 
spring are affected with tuberculosis and come to the full period 
of gestation. In case of infection from the dam the disease is 
especially liable to attack the liver in which so much of the 
placental blood at once circulates. Cases of the kind are recorded 
by Malvox, Brouwier, Bang, Lungwitz, Barlund and Rieck, and 
in the tuberculous herd of a large public institution in New 
York several instances were noted. 

The infrequency of such an occurrence may, however, be in- 
ferred from the fact that in 800,000 calves slaughtered only 7 
were found tuberculous. 

INDESTRUCTIBILITY OF THE BACILLUS 
TUBERCULOSIS. 

The bacillus may be said to be capable of surviving drying, 
the action of water, and putrefaction. It is destroyed by heat 
(162° to 212° F), sunlight, or in one month by heavy salting. 

CONDITIONS WHICH FAVOR TUBERCULOSIS. 

A personal predisposition to tuberculosis is a prime requisite, 
and this is rendered hereditarj^ by close and inbreeding and 
breeding in line. Hence the great danger of tuberculosis among 
inproved breeds. Again whatever undermines the health or 
stamina, such as breeding before maturity, breeding and heavy 
milking, breeding the old and debilitated, an insufficient ration, 
an ill-balanced ration which stimulates unduly the secretion of 
milk, ill health, local inflammations in the air passages, lack of 
ventilation, constant stabling in dark, damp, undrained stables 
and wet soils, greatly favor the reception of the bacillus. The 
impure air, lack of sunshine and accumulation of the germs in 
large cities make a destructive combination. In France, cities of 
under 10,000 lose i .8 per cent yearly from pulmonary tuberculosis, 
while Paris with its 2,000,000 loses 4.9 per cent. In Vienna 
hospitals 85 per cent of the bodies show tubercular lesions. In 



12 



Bulletin 150. 



Bavarian Monasteries 30 per cent of the young postulants die in 
a few years tuberculous. In New York City charity hospital 30 
per cent of all deaths show tubercle lesions. Where country 
cows are tuberculous to from i to 5 per cent, city cows are so 
from 9 to 20 per cent and upward. On the contrary our prairie 
and plains fat cattle show but 0.02 per cent tuberculous. In the 
Southern States with an unbroken outdoor life country cattle are 
nearly all sound, whereas in large cities like New Orleans they 
are largely tuberculous. 

APPEARANCE AND FORMATION OF TUBERCLE. 
The term tubercle is drawn from the rounded nodular form of 
the diseased process. The bacillus lodged in the tissue multiplies 




^4 ® 






2. — A drazubig of a section of a very young tubercle in spleen. ( Thoma). 

and causes congestion and extraordinary growth of cells. The 
affected points may be at first no larger than millet seed, but 
these may increase and run together so as to form conglomerate 
masses of one, six or nine inches in diameter. As the cell growth 
increases, the central ones degenerate, die, and form a yellowish 



Tuberculosis in Cattlk. 13 

white, soft, cheesy mass (caseation) and these nuineroiis cheesy 
centres become very characteristic of the disease. Sometimes 
the tubercle develops into a hard fil)roiis mass the centre of which 
may still caseate. In other cases it becomes calcareous or gritty 
a condition which is usually associated with caseation. Some- 
times the caseated mass softens into a whitish cream-like fluid. 

COMMON SEATS AND SYMPTOMS OF TUBERCLE 

IN CATTLE. 

Tuberculosis of the lungs may be chronic or acute. The 
chronic cases may last indefinitely with no other symptom than 
an occasional cough on leaving the hot stable for cool air, when 
suddenly raised in the stall, when made to run, or when drinking 
cold water or eating dusty food. The cough is usualh' small, 
dry, wheezing and repeated several times in succession. The 
general health may seem to be good, the subject may be fat or a 
heavy milker. To the trained ear, wheezing, crackling, or 
other unnatural sounds may be heard in the lungs or they may 
fail of detection. There may be a discharge from the nose, 
which when stained and placed under the microscope may show 
bacilli, but by cleansing the nose with the tongue the animal 
may make this test practically impossible. 

Acute tuberculosis of the lungs on the other hand may prove 
fatal in a month. It is attended with rapid loss of condition, 
staring coat, elevated temperature, hurried breathing, frequent 
weak, husky or rattling cough, heavy, mawkish breath, and 
na.sal discharge containing gritty particles or opaque yellowish 
masses. Pinching of the back, breastbone or spaces between the 
ribs, or striking the ribs with the knuckles may cause wincing, 
groaning or cough, and auscultation over the ribs may detect 
sounds of friction, wheezing, creaking, crepitation, rattling, or 
blowing, etc. Percussion over the chest detects areas of lack of 
resonance corresponding to the seats of tubercle or pulmonary 
infiltration. A significant feature is that these areas of flatness 
are distributed over the lungs, and not confined to one spot as is 
common in pneumonia. Appetite and rumination fail, bloating 
occurs after meals, the bowls may become irregular, and 





Bulletin 150. 

indications of tuberculosis in the throat, 
or superficial lymph glands may appear. 

TubcrcHlosis of the stomach and bowels 
is common in young animals living on 
milk but is not infrequent in the mature 
animal as well. It may come from 
infected milk, or from the swallowing 
of the diseased products coming from 
tuberculous throat or lungs. In calves 
there may be noted indigestion, foetid 
diarrhcjea, bloating, and finally cough and 
expectoration or swelling of the super- 
ficial lymph glands. In older cattle 
there may be irregular appetite and 
rumination, bloating after meals, costive- 
ness, alternating with diarrhoea, colics, 
and marked emaciation. The oiled hand 
introduced into the rectum may detect 
the enlarged mesenteric glands, which 
must be carefully distinguished from 
hardened foeces in the bowels, from the 
ovaries, from masses of fat, and from the 
cotyledons of the womb. 

Tuberculosis of the womb and ovaries 
may depend on infection by the bull, or 
may be a complication of intestinal and 
peritoneal ttiberculosis. It is usually 
marked by sterility, abortion, by fre- 
quency and intensity of oestrum, and by 
marked emaciation. Sometimes there 
is a white vaginal discharge. 

Tuberculosis of the liver, spleen and 
paiicreas is also a common accompani- 
ment of infection of the bowel or 
abdominal cavity. The liver and spleen 
are especially liable to suffer from being 
on the line of circulation of the portal 
vein which brings blood from all the 



3 — Drawing of tuberculous spieeyi 
in pig shoiving tubercles j-j the 
natural size. 



Tuberculosis in Cattle. 15 

other abdominal digestive organs. The lymph glands on the 
posterior aspect of the liver are especially liable to suffer. 
With liver-tuberculosis there ma}^ be jaundice accompanied by 
other symptoms of digestive trouble, but as in the affection of the 
spleen and pancreas there is oftentimes only an indefinite ill health. 

TKbcniiiosis of the kidneys may be attended by extra tenderness 
of the loins to pinching and by frequent passage of urine, which 
may be discolored by blood or pus. The urine is likely to con- 
tain microscopic cylindroid casts and when stained these may 
show tubercle bacilli. 

Tuberculosis of the udder \s usually manifested by a circumscribed 
or general swelling of one or more quarters, without at first 
special tenderness, and this gradually extends to the whole 
gland. The milk may be watery, grumous, or even bloody and 
the lymph glands in front of the udder and behind are enlarged 
and hardened. The tuberculous nature of the lesions can only 
be certainly determined by the discover}- of the tubercle bacillus 
in the milk, b}^ the successful inoculation of the milk on a small 
animal, or by the tuberculin test. 

Tuberculosis of the throat a7id pharyngeal lymph glajids '\s one of 
the most common forms of tuberculosis in cattle. It causes a 
wheezing breathing, glairy discharge from the nose or mouth, 
difficulty in swallowing and a loose gurgling cough. The 
diseased glands may be felt as soft swellings around the throat, 
or as shrunken hard nodular bodies, or as masses fluctuating by 
reason of their liquid contents. When the disease extends to 
the interior of the larj^nx it causes a persistent, parox^'smal, 
husky cough. 

The lymph glaiids inside the lower jaw or those near the root of 
the ear may swell up, soften and discharge a cheesy or thick 
cream}' fluid containing the bacillus. 

The lyynph glands inside the chest — bronchial mediastinal, etc., — 
are especially liable to sutler, as they receive the infected lymph 
which comes from the diseased lungs. These often suffer when 
no lung disease can be found, the bacilli having passed through 
the lung without forming any primary lesion in that organ, or 
those that have been formed having healed. These are often 
attended by no distinctive symptoms, and require the tuberculin 
test. 



i6 Bt'lletix 150. 

Lymph glands i)i front of the middle of the shoulder blade may 
be suspected if of uneciual size and form on the two sides, if hard 
and nodular, or if soft and fluctuating. They rarely caseate and 
burst. 

Other lyviph glands that may be similarly affected, and that 
are superficial enough to be felt, are \.\\q glands at the entrance of 
the chest in front of the two first ribs, the glands on the flank 
above and in front of the stifle, and, in the young, the glands 
situated high up in the groin . 

Tuberculosis of the bo7ies and joints is seen in >oung growing 
animals, affecting especially the large joints of the limbs, the 
elbow and knee, the stifle and hock, but also at times the bones 
and joints of the digits. The ends of the bones become enlarged 
and tender and the joints overdistended, tense and elastic. The 
lameness may be extreme. 

PROPORTION OF OCCULT CASES. 

In herds which have the disease in the most intense form, by 
reason of long standing, indoor life, and repeated reinfection 
nearly all may be detected by the objective symptoms, but in such 
herds nearly every animal is diseased. Inordinary herds, where 
the disease is less intense, at least two-thirds of the diseased ani- 
mals would escape under such an examination. In one herd of 
70 head in which the tuberculin test condemned 24 head (being 
50 per cent of the mature animals) I left the examination after 
slaughter to the veterinarian of the A. J. C. C. who was at the 
time skeptical as to the value of the tuberculin test. He wrote 
me afterward of his surprise at finding every one of the 24 
condemned animals tuberculous, when not one of them had 
shown symptoms by which he could recognize the disease in 
life. This is no exceptional case, and may be advanced rather 
as a typical example of the ordinary infected country herd. 

It is manifest that if we aim at speedily and certainly clearing 
a herd of tuberculosis we must have some better method of diag- 
nosing the disease than the best physical examination. Attempts 
have been made to discover the bacillus in the expectoration, 
milk or nodular lymph glands, but this requires prolonged care- 










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TuBKRCULOsis IX Cattlk. 1 7 

fill manipulation in almost every case, and, in case of no bacillus 
being found, is no guarantee of the absence of the disease. 

lyiociilatious with the suspected discharges, secretions or tis- 
sues, demand a delay of one or two months before one can pro- 
nounce upon the result, and that result if negative, gives no 
assurance that the animal is free from tuberculosis but only that 
the material inoculated did not contain the germ. 

THE TUBERCULIN TEST. 

Much has been said and written against the tuberculin test by 
those who have never used it, and who are therefore utterly 
incompetent either to endorse or condemn it, but for those who aim 
at the prompt and thorough eradication of the infection from a 
herd, and at the securing at once of a guarantee of progeny, 
beef and dairy products, no resort can, as regards its efficacy, be 
at all compared with the tuberculin test. 

Tuberculin is a sterile solution of the products of the artificial 
culture of the tubercle bacillus. In its preparation it has been 
treated to a boiling temperature which is as fatal to a tubercle 
bacillus in liquid medium as it is to a hen's egg. But this is not all, 
even the dead bacilli have been separated from the liquid bypassing 
it through a porcelain filter. The remaining liquid (tuberculin) 
is absolutel}^ sterile and can plant and propagate neither the 
tubercle bacillus nor any other living thing. It can poison if 
given in excessive doses, as alcohol can poison, but it can no 
more produce the germ of tubercle where that does not exist 
than can distilled alcohol plant the yeast germ and start a new 
vinous fermentation. The insane fear of tuberculin is the 
fruit of an ignorance of its true nature and of a blind prejudice 
which withholds its victim from informing himself on the 
subject. 

As we produce tuberculin in the bacteriological laboratory of 
the N. Y. S. Veterinary College, and distribute it free, for use 
by approved parties in this state, we can speak with confidence 
of the absolute harmlessness of the agent when intelligently 
employed. We aim at securing no profit in making this agent, 
but charge only for packing and shipping. We have therefore 
no interest in its manufacture, for on the contrary the greater 



1 8 Bulletin 150. 

demand from residents of this state for tuberculin the more unre- 
munerated labor is heaped upon us. 

The value of the agent consists in this, that the hypodermic 
injection of an a]:)propriate dose in a tuberculous animal, however 
lightl)' affected, ])r()duces in the course of the succeeding twenty- 
four hourb a rise of bod\ temperature and other indications of 
fever. The gradual rise and fall of the temperature in the absence 
of any other diseased or physiological condition which would 
bring this about is the most reliable of all symptoms of the 
presence of the disease. Upon the sound animal system such 
a dose of tul)erculin ])roduces no appreciable effect. 

It is important, however, that I should not be misunderstood 
in this matter. The man who will use tuberculin without due 
caution and without due consideration as to the condition and 
environment of the animal, and who blindly condemns on any 
rise of temperature will almost certainly condemn non-tubercu- 
lous animals and bring the tuberculin test into discredit. The 
intelligent use of the test, demands an intimate knowledge of the 
kind of animals tested, both in the healthy and diseased condi- 
tion, and a careful scrutiny before and during the test. 

I St. The subject Duist be in good general health. If there is 
present in the system any concurrent disease it may undergo an 
aggravation within twenty-four hours and give a rise of temper- 
ature that will be mistakenly set down for tuberculosis. At the 
very start, therefore, it is important that the general health of 
the subject should be first assured by a critical professional 
examination. If some other disease is present the tuberculin test 
had best, as a rule, be delayed until that has subsided, while if 
tuberculosis is found the test will be superfluous. 

2d. The subject inn st not beivitliin three weeks of parturition, 7wr 
about to abort. In many cases, though not in all, as preparations 
are made for calving, the system becomes undul}^ susceptible to 
the presence of tuberculin and that agent will cause a rise of 
temperature, though no tuberculosis is present. Unless this 
source of error is carefully guarded against the most valuable 
cows in the herd may be condemned unjustly. 

3d. 71ie cow must not be 7vi(hin three days of the period at which 
" heat'' 2vould naturally occur. Under the excitement of oestrum 



\ 




Temperature Charts 

4. — Temperature curves of § cows all of one herd, under the tuberculin 

test. No. 77 was tuberculous, the other, healthy. 

5. — Temperature curves of 10 cows, all of one herd, under the tuberculin 

test. Nos. 68, 8j, gi and gS were tuberculous, the others healthy. 
( Curtice, Report of the Bureau of Animal Industry i8gj-6. ) 



20 Bulletin 150. 

the body temperature usually rises two or three degrees, and if 
tuberculin has been used this rise may be attributed to tubercu- 
losis and a sound animal may be condemned. Nor is it always 
enough that the animal is supposed to Ije pregnant. Al)ortions 
sometimes takes place unexpectedly and unknown to the owner. 
If, therefore, a cow under the test and which is not well advanced 
in pregnancy should show a rise of temperature it should be at 
once ascertained whether the animal is not in " heat." If symp- 
toms of "heat" are found she should be set aside along with any 
calving cows to be tested again when such a source of error is no 
longer present. 

4th. The tested animal must not be exposed to a hot sun m a 
closed area. In excess this will cause heat apoplexy, and the 
fever heat which ushers this in may easily be mistaken for the 
indications of tuberculosis. 

5th. Cattle taken from pastures must ?iot be enclosed in a hot, 
stuffy stable. While they must be tied up to allow of the tem- 
peratures being taken at short intervals, coolness and ventilation 
should be secured in summer by a sufficient air space and the 
requisite ventilating openings. 

6th. Exposure to cold draughts between open doors a)id windozvs, 
or to wet or chilly blasts out of doors should be carefully guarded 
against. A chill proceeding from any source and alike in the 
presence or absence of tuberculin causes a rise of the internal 
body temperature. 

7th. Heavy cows luiaccustomed to stand on hard boards may 
have a rise hi temperatiire in connection with resulting tenderness of 
the feet. One must avoid hard floors on the day of the test or 
make examination of the feet and allow for attendant fever. 

8th. Omission of the previous milking or a change of milker ajid 
consequent retention of part of the milk will raise the temperature 
of a nervous cow, and in careless hands secure an erroneous con- 
demnation. 

9th. Privation of water at the regular time will often cause rise 
of ton pe)atu)'e QS^&c'mWy when on the dry feeding of winter. I 
have seen a general rise of two degrees and upward from the 
delay of watering for a single hour, while after watering the 
temperature went downi to the normal and remained so. Water 



TebKKCULOSIS in CaTTLK. 21 

always tends to a temporary lowering of temperature l)Ut in the 
presence of tuberculosis it soon rises again. 

lOth. Change of food is liable to prodiiee a slioht indigestio)i and 
rise of temperature. This should be avoided as far as possible, 
and w^hen a herd is taken up from pasture for the test it should 
have grass, ensilage or other succulent food. 

These are examples of the sources of fallacy which attend on 
the reckless and unintelligent use of tuberculin. They only show 
that skill and training are necessary to its successful use, and 
that in the absence of these the apparent results are not to be too 
unhesitatingly accepted. In all cases, in the absence of the 
requisite education and experience it is desirable that the animals 
which have shown a rise of temperature should be .separated 
from the herd and tested anew after the lapse of three or four 
weeks. In this way such errors may be almost entirely excluded. 

iith. An animal with advanced tuberculosis sometimes fails to 
react. The subject, is, how^ever, usually emaciated and bloodless, 
breathes hard and has rapid pulse on exertion and shows une- 
quivocal symptoms of tuberculosis to the skilled examiner. Such 
cases can, therefore, rarely escape a physical examination. They 
are noticed mainly to guard against the mistake of making the 
rise of temperature or its absence the sole test of tuberculosis. 

1 2th. It is objected to tuberculin that it detects even the 
slightest and most latent cases of tuberculosis, some of which 
would recover and many would remain useful for years. This 
objection would be valid if our object w^ere to obtain the greatest 
possible money return from the individual tuberculous cow at the 
expense of any risk to the sound herd. But tuberculin is, and 
should be used for the purpose of a complete eradication of the 
tubercle bacillus from the herd and the preservation of a sound 
stock which with its products will be above suspicion. If this is 
not aimed at ; if the latent cases are to be retained in the herd 
and the advanced cases only removed then truly tuberculin should 
have no place in 3^our system. Physical examination should be 
all sufficient for your purpose. But you could not place the herd 
at once above suspicion, you could not sell its members with a 
guarantee of soundness, and you could not assure the consumers 
that the uncooked dairy products were safe. 



2 2 BULLKTIX I 50. 

The animal with local tubercle may not at the present time be 
diffusing the poison, but where such animals are preserved one 
will at intervals have the local tubercle extended so as to cause 
generalized tuberculosis ; and as this extension necessarily takes 
place by the conveyance of the bacillus through the blood, and 
as such bacilli must be circulating in the blood before they can 
invade new tissues and form new tubercles, it follows that there 
is always a period between the entrance of such bacilli into the 
blood and the development of new tubercles in which the ]3lood 
and all blood-containing organs are infecting, though no symp- 
tom nor lesion of new tubercles can be detected. At this stage 
the animal may convey tuberculosis through its flesh, or through 
its dairy products, while even a post-mortem examination would 
pronounce it free from generalized tuberculosis. It is also liable 
to distribute the germ to other members of the herd before any 
suspicion of immediate danger is entertained. 

Deductioji. It may be concluded from such considerations as 
the above that the tuberculin test is indispensible where one 
aims at a guarantee of the soundness of the progeny and dairy 
products of a herd, but that its use demands one of twoconditions. 

A. That the animal showing tuberculosis under the test shall 
be destroyed and the buildings where they have been shall be 
disinfected ; or, 

B. That such infected animals, as have the disease in a latent 
form, shall be formed into a separate herd and kept well apart 
from other stock, for breeding purposes only ; or if their milk is 
u.sed that it shall be first subjected to sterilization. 

The stockowner who values the sound portion of his herd can- 
not afford to allow even the latent cases of tuberculosis to min- 
gle with it. 

TUBKRCUUN IN MODERATE DOSE HARMLESvS TO 
SOUND CATTLE. 

The concurrent testimony of all veterinarians drawn from 
hundreds of thousands of tests is that the ordinary test dose is 
harmless to a nontuberculous animal. In 1894 I put this to a 
crucial test on five cows (Holstein, Jersey and grade) injecting 
the tuberculin on six successive occasions and found that it pro- 



Tuberculosis in Cattlp:. 23 

duced no appreciable change in the general health as evidenced 
by temperatnre, breathing, pulse, yield of milk or quality of 
milk. I feel accordingly that I can speak with the greatest con- 
fidence as to the entire harmlessness of the tuberculin test on a 
sound animal. 

That it rouses into a temporary activity the tuberculosis already 
existing in the unsound animal is true. Were it not so it would 
be useless as a diagnostic agent. But if the state stands ready to 
destroy and pay for the diseased, there can be no possible 
objection to the temporary aggravation which leads to the purifi- 
cation of the herd. 

MEASURES FOR THE ERADICATION OF 
TUBERCULOSIS. 

For the complete eradication of tuberculosis from a herd or 
country the first and main consideration is the absolute separation 
of the sick animal and all its products from the health}-. This 
is fundamental in dealing wnth all infectious diseases, and if it 
could be applied would reduce all contagious disorders to the 
condition of simple sporadic ones. Plagues would cease to be 
plagues, and the infecting disease would cease like any other 
affection with the first individual case. The plagues of men follow 
the great movements of men — pilgrimages, armies, trade. The 
animal plagues prevail continuously in unfenced territories (Asia, 
Central Europe, Australia, Tasmania, New Zealand, South 
Africa) , and follow the tract of armies and the channels of com- 
merce. Stop the great accumulations and intermingling of 
animals and we arrest the general diffusion of a plague and 
reduce it to the comparatively insignificant importance of some 
common disease. 

Exceptional cases like anthrax and blackquarter in which the 
germ is maintained for 3'ears in the soil, are onl}^ apparent 
exceptions to this fundamental principle, as whenever the germ 
can thus be carried in soil or water the separation of sick and 
their products from the healthy is incomplete. 

In applying this principle to tuberculosis we meet with the 
drawback that a great variety of animals of different genera are 



24 BULLKTIN 150. 

susceptible (including the human beinj^) and that it is difficult 
to keej) all these and their products apart, and that further it is 
not in our power to cut short the disease al)ruptly in the human 
race as it is in the lower animals. There is however the counter- 
balancing advantage that its propagation is slow and takes place 
less readily through the air than in the case of most infectious 
diseases. 

BREEDING HEALTHY STOCK FROM PARENTS WITH 
LATENT TUBERCULOSIS. 

Where the state is not pledged to exterminate the disease by- 
prompt and radical measures it is quite possible to raise healthy 
stock from sires and dams that have tuberculosis in a slight and 
latent form. It will be recalled that calves are usually born free 
from tuberculosis. In the slaughterhouses of Europe there may 
be but one tuberculous calf in 100,000 killed. If therefore the 
calves can be preserved from infection of a parental source they 
may be raised absolutely sound with very few exceptions. For 
valuable pedigreed animals especially it is quite possible for the 
owner to keep those with latent tuberculosis in secluded herds, 
to remove the calf from its dam as soon as born, and to raise it 
on the sterilized milk of the dam or on the milk of another and 
healthy cow. 

In such a case it is always desirable to employ the tuberculin 
test upon the entire herd, to destroy at once those animals that 
have advanced or generalized tuberculosis, and to separate in a 
new or disinfected barn under special attendants the cows that 
have been attested sound. There will remain the slight and 
latent cases which have reacted under the tuberculin, but which 
are well nourished, having healthy skins, eyes and appetite, and 
no cough, wheezing nor shortness of breath. These must be 
kept well apart in separate barn and pasture where neither they 
nor their products can come in contact with healthy stock, where 
they can have good air and nourishing food. Their calves must 
be kept in a separate building or park, and fed on the milk of 
sound cows, or on that af their dams after it has been raised to 
the boiling point for 15 minutes. After sterilization the milk 
must be put in scalded vessels reserved for the use of the calves, 



TURERCULOSLS IN CaTTLE. 25 

and fed by the special attendants. Any loss of condition, 
unthriftiness, cough or scouring on the part of a calf, should be 
the warrant for separating it from the others and subjecting it to 
the tuberculin test, and for its destruction in case it shows the 
tuberculin reaction. 

The cows should also be carefully watched and in case any 
one develops cough, wheezing, breathlessness on exertion, or 
other sign of actively advancing tuberculosis it should be at once 
destro3xd as endangering the others by possible reinfection. 
The whole isolated tuberculous herd should be submitted to the 
tuberculin test, ever}^ three or six months, and individuals which 
fail to react on two successive tests, and which show all other 
indications of good health may be held to have recovered and 
may be restored to the healthy herd. 

A second method is that pursued successfully in the North 
West Territories. Cows and heifers that have reacted under 
tuberculin, but which otherwise appear to be in good health, are 
made into a herd by themselves and placed on a special range 
apart from all other cattle. They live in the open air with 
slight shelter in winter and their calves are allowed to suck their 
dams running with them until winter. The wide range, the 
open air life, and the early destruction, by sunshine and oxygen, 
of the discharged microbes, tend in the main to ward off infection 
except such as comes in the milk, and as a matter of fact the 
majority of the calves grow up in apparent good health and are 
fattened and shipped to England. 

The climate of our Southern States affords a better opportunity 
for this practice than does the semi-arctic northwest. There the 
ranch cattle living in the open air all the year round show little 
or no tuberculosis, and w4th this outdoor life the genial climate 
will greatly favor the survival if not the recovery of the slight 
and latent cases. It should be added that in the stabled cows of 
the southern cities tuberculosis is very prevalent. 



26 Bulletin 150. 

EXTINCTION OF TUBERCULOSIS WITHOUT THE 
TUBERCULIN TEST. 

As successful examples of this I may (|Uote from my own per- 
sonal experience. 

I St. A herd of about 200 head belonging to the Willard Asy- 
lum had become badly affected with tuberculosis and on physi- 
cal examination, without the use of tuberculin, I condemned 
about 50 per cent. These were accordingly destroyed and new 
barns and yards were constructed at some distance from the 
others and filled with cows selected from the most healthy herds 
available. These were bred to healthy bulls and a new herd 
gradually built up. Meanwhile the remaining 50 per cent of the 
original herd were gradually slaughtered, and like the original 
half of the herd were found to be tuberculous without a single 
exception. The original barn was thoroughly cleaned, repeat- 
edl}' disinfected with chloride of zinc and with its cleansed and 
disinfected yards was left unoccupied for an entire year. The 
fields on which the original herd had pastured were used for 
other purposes than pasture for two full years. The new herd 
was carefully watched and any cow which contracted a cough or 
showed especially poor health was at once separated from the 
herd and disposed of. This treatment of the new herd was kept 
up for over twelve years, and in the middle of December. 1897, 
I subjected the mature animals of the herd to the tuberculin 
test, and found not a single case of tuberculosis. I have never 
before subjected an untested herd of this size to the action of 
tul)erculin without finding a considerable percentage of cases of 
tuberculosis. Tlie splendid showing is highly instructive as to 
the high value of intelligent management even without the aid 
or tu])erculin. Here a large herd was maintained under the 
same conditions of food, milking and housing (even in the same 
barns) as the former herd which became universalh' tul^erculous, 
and, even under the crucial test of the tuberculin, furnished 
not a single case of tuberculosis. The only diflference is that 
with the present herd intelligent measures were taken to exclude 
the germ of the tuberculosis. The ca.se is all the more striking 
that some of the most important precautions against the spread 



Tuberculosis in Cattle. 27 

of tuberculosis in a herd were not put in force. The cows were 
not taught to keep the same stall on all occasions, but went into 
any stall that was convenient. Then there were no partitions 
between the feeding places of adjacent stalls and one cow could 
lick up the food from the two stalls on the right and left as well 
as from her own. With an infecting cow in the herd, therefore, 
there was every opportunity for a speedy spread of the infec- 
tion. In spite of such obvious opportunit}^ for infection the care- 
ful selection of its first members of the present herd, the build- 
ing up of the herd by home breeding onl3% and the weeding out 
of all suspicious animals succeeded in excluding any trace of 
tuberculosis. 

The experiment, however, entailed the entire destruction of 
the original infected herd, and though the post mortem exami- 
nation showed that in this instance this step was necessar}' to a 
successful result yet in many other less universally diseased herds 
the larger part could have been saved by picking out the diseased 
with the aid of the tuberculin test. 

2d. "In Cornell University herd, which numbers about sixty 
cattle, old and young, tuberculosis led to the destruction of a 
number of individuals. The diseased, however, were disposed of 
as soon as objective symptoms showed the presence of tuberculo- 
sis, and after some years of this weeding out when I tested the 
whole herd with the newly discovered tuberculin I could find no 
trace of the disease except in a young bull which had recently 
been acquired from another herd. Since his destruction I have 
tested them repeatedly, but have found no trace of tuberculosis. 

EXTINCTION OF TUBERCULOSIS WITH THE AID OF 
TUBERCULIN. 

If a herd has been bred up from home stock without the intro- 
duction of any animal from without, and if for a number of 
years there have been no losses and no illness suggestive of any 
form of tuberculosis there is a fair presumption that it is free 
from that disease. But in the average herd, and especially if 
sickness or death has occurred, even if such has been attributed 
to something else, it is a wise precaution to subject the whole 



28 Bulletin 150. 

to the tuberculin test. Especially now when the N. Y. State 
Veterinary College undertakes to furnish tuberculin free for use 
in herds in this state, the expense of such a test should not be a 
serious drawback. The measures to be adopted may be thus 
enumerated. 

ist. Apply the tuberculin test to the entire herd. 

2d. Remove all animals showing a rise of temperature which 
indicates tuberculosis. 

3d. Destroy and burn, boil, or deeply bury all cases of the 
disease, unless it is decided to form an isolated herd of latent 
cases which are in good condition. (vSee above.) 

4th. In case of doubt or disturbing influences which may 
have caused rise of temperature (nearness to calving, heat, ex- 
posure, concurrent disease, changes in management, etc.), keep 
the suspected animal apart for three or four weeks and test 
again. This will almost certainly correct any mistake of the 
first test. 

5th. Repeat the test everv three months and if two successive 
tests show no indication of tuberculosis the herd may be accounted 
safe. 

6th. As soon as tuberculous animals have been removed from 
a stable let it be vacated and thoroughly disinfected with chloride 
of lime, 4 ounces to a gallon of water and enough quicklime to 
make a good whitewash, which will show if even a square inch 
has been missed. When chloride of lime is objectionable because 
of its tainting the milk, mercuric chloride may be used in the 
proportion of one drachm to a gallon of water, to which is added 
one drachm of sal ammoniac and 5 drachms of common salt. 
This is much more poisonous than the chloride of lime and must 
be cautiously handled during its application. The walls, roof, 
and especially the floor, gutter and feeding trough must be first 
thoroughly scraped, washed and cleaned, all fotten woodwork 
must be removed and in case of double boarded walls, the boards 
must be removed on one side to permit of a thorough application. 

7th. In making new purchases avoid any herd in which tuber- 
■culosis has appeared, or which has had sickness or deaths in 
recent years. 

8th. Don't purchase from city, suburban nor swill stable. 



Tuberculosis in Catlle. 29 

9th. Don't take a cow which is in ill health or low condition, 
especially one with cough, nasal discharge, foul breath, hard 
nodules under the skin, diseased udder, swollen loins or joints 
or a tendency to scour or bloat. 

loth. Test every fresh animal with tuberculin before admit- 
ting it to your herd, unless it has been recently tested and has 
not since been exposed to possible infection. 

I ith. Don't admit strange cattle to house, field or yard with 
your own. Keep them apart until tested with tuberculin. 

1 2th. Keep each animal in 3'our herd strictly to its own stall 
and manger. 

13th. Board up the partitions of the stalls in front so that no 
two cows can feed from the same manger nor lick each other. 

14th. Be especialh' observant of the older cows and on the 
slightest sign of ill health separate and subject to the tuberculin 
test. 

15th. In case a herd of cattle is found to be tuberculous sub- 
ject to the tuberculin test all the domestic animals that have 
mingled with them freely and fed from the same troughs. Re- 
move those that show a reaction. 

i6th. Exterminate the vermin (rats, mice, sparrows) in a 
building where tuberculosis has prevailed. 

17th. Let no consumptive person attend on cattle or other 
live stock, nor prepare their food. 

EXTINCTION OF TUBERCULOSIS BY STATE ACTION. 

It is out of the sphere of the private breeder or dairyman to 
enter on the question of state sanitar}^ police, yet no one is more 
deeply interested in the general enforcement of such measures as 
would banish the existing dangers which attend on the purchase 
of strange animals and their products. In recent years the rigid 
supervision of herds in the New England States has driven 
many infected cattle into New York to spread tuberculosis in 
previously healthy herds, and to increase it in those that were 
already affected. 

The exclusion of cattle seeking to enter Pennsylvania or the 
New England States, which were not accompanied by the certi- 
ficate that they had successfully stood the tuberculin test, has 



30 Bulletin 150. 

led to the testing of western cattle at Buffalo, Albany and else- 
where, and the detention of such as failed under the test, to be 
sold too often to the unsuspecting New York stockowner. The 
tests have often been made b}^ the inspectors of the Bureau of 
Animal Industry, who have no legal right to inferfere with the 
condemned cattle unless the attempt is made to move them into 
another state, and in the absence of any restriction by the 
municipal or state health officers, the owner or dealer is at liberty 
to sell such tuberculous cattle in open market. 

If the test is made by a veterinarian who is not a national nor 
state official the same holds true ; he has no authority to forbid 
the sale of the diseased and condemned cattle. 

Again, private stockowners have had their own herds tested, 
and have removed from the herd those that failed to stand the 
test, but there is nothing to show what became of such con- 
demned animals, and in the ab.sence of a state indemnity and 
slaughter, there is much to be suspected. 

These are hints of the evils that have been precipitated for a 
length of time upon our New York live stock industry. Day by 
day our herds are being systematically infected by the introduction 
of the tuberculous offscouring of other states and of our own, 
and we raised not a finger to stop it. 

Further, in the interests of the consuming public we have to 
consider that we have no inspection in our little local abattoirs 
and no guarantee of the meats there killed. And meanwhile we 
are giving free rein to every evil disposed dealer, to add to our 
herds the tuberculous animals drawn from the states around us. 

The crying need of New York to-day is first to block these 
streams of infection, which are now practically invited into our 
herds from other commonwealths, and second to inaugurate a 
systematic effort to rid our own herds, which are the sources of 
our dairy and meat products from this scourge. 



The Following Bulletins are Available for Distribution to 
Those Who may Desire Them. 



39 Creaming and Aerating Milk, 20 pp. 

40 Removing Tassels from Corn , 9 pp. 

41 Steam and Hot-Water for Heating 

Greenhouses. 26 pp. 

49 Sundry Investigations of 1892, 56 pp. 

53 GEdema of the Tomato. 34 pp. 

55 Greenhouse Notes, 31 pp. 

61 Sundry Investigations of the Year 1893, 

54 PP- 
64 On Certain Grass-Eating Insects, 58 pp. 
69 Hints on the Plantingof Orchards, i6pp. 
71 Apricot Growing in Western New York, 

26 pp. 
12 The Cultivation of Orchards, 22 pp. 

73 Leaf Curl and Plum Pockets, 40 pp. 

74 Impressions of the Peach Industry in 

N. Y.. 28 pp. 

75 Peach Yellows, 20 pp. 

76 Some Grape Troubles in Western N. Y., 

116 pp 

77 The Grafting of Grapes, 22 pp. 

78 The Cabbage Root Maggot, 99 pp. 

79 Varieties of Strawberry Leaf Blight, 26 



-11 



80 The Quince in Western N. Y., 27 pp. 
82 Experiments with Tuberculin, 20 pp. 
84 The Recent Apple Failures in N. Y., 24 

pp. 
87 Dwarf Lima Beans, 24 pp. 

92 Feeding Fat to Cows, 15 pp. 

93 Cigar-Case-Bearer, 20 pp. 

95 Winter Muskmelons, 20 pp. 

96 Forcing House Miscellanies, 43 pp. 

97 Entomogenous Fungi, 42 pp. 

loi The Spraying of Trees and the Canker 

Worm, 24pp. 
103 General Observations in Care of Fruit 

Trees, 26 pp. 

103 Soil Depletion in Respect to Careo 

Fruit Trees, 21 pp. 

104 Climbing Cutworms in Western, N.Y. 

51 PP 

105 Test of Cream Separators, 18 pp. 

106 RevisedOpinions of the JapanesePlums, 

30 pp. 
109 Geological History of the Chautau ua 
Grape Belt, 36 pp. 



Extension Work in Horticulture. 42 pp. 

.Spraying Calendar. 

Dwarf Apples. 31 pp. 

Friiit Brevities, 50 pp. 

Texture of the Soil, 8 pp. 

Moisture of the Soil and Its Conser- 
vation, 24 pp. 

Second Report upon Extension Work 
in Horticulture, 36 pp. 

Green Fruit Worms, 17 pp. 

The Pistol-Case-Bearer in Western New 
York., i8 pp. 

A Disease of Currant Canes, 20 pp. 

The Currant-Stem Girdler aud the 
Raspberry-Cane Maggot. 22 pp. 

A Second Account of Sweet Peas, 35 pp. 

A Talk about Dahlias, 40 pp. 
129 How to Conduct Field Experiments with 
Fertilizers, 11 pp. 

Potato Culture, 15 pp. 

Notes upon Plums for Western New 
York, 31 pp. 

Notes upon Celery, 34 pp. 

The Army-Worm in New York, 28 pp. 

Strawberries under Glass, 10 pp. 

Forage Crops, 28 pp. 

Chrysanthemums, 24 pp. 
137 Agricultural Extension Work, sketch of 
its Origin and Progress, 11 pp. 

Studies and Illustrations of Mush- 
rooms ; I, 32 pp. 

Third Report upon Japanese Plums. 

Second Report on Potato Culture, 24 pp. 

Powdered Soap as a Cause of Death 
Among Swill-Fed Hogs. 

The Codling-Moth. 

Sugar Beet Investigations, 88 pp. 

Suggestions on Spraying and on the 
San Josd Scale. 

Some Important Pear Diseases. 

Fourth Report of Progress on Exten 
sion Work, 26 pp. 

147 Fourth Report upon Chrysanthemum 

36 pp. 

148 Quince Curculio, 26 pp. 

149 Some Spraying Mixtures. 



125 
126 



127 
128 



130 
131 

132 
133 
134 
135 
136 



138 

139 
140 
141 

142 
143 
144 

145 
146 



Bulletins Issued Since the Close of the Fiscal Year, June 30, 1898. 

150. Tuberculosis in Cattle and its Control. 



Exterminating Texas Fever 



\F. 



The Country Gentleman, Nov. 8, 1S9S.J 



Eds. Country Gentleman— Will you kindly 
advise how to remove the small ticks on cattle 
which are said to cause or transmit Texas 
fever ? 

What causes these ticks ? Is It well settled 
that the fever is caused by these ticks ? 

When cattle with this fever have been pas- 
tured In a field, how soon cau the field be used 
apain for pasturage without daneer? 

What ts the proper remedy for such fever ? 

Is there any danger of such trouble aft*»r 
frost? w. N. w. 

Another corresDondent writes for advice In 
connection with losses from this disease in a 
herd of cattle in Albemarl*^ County, Va. They 
had been in no wav exposed to other cattle, nor 
on or near a highway, but had access to the 
woods. A small pack of hounds kept on the 
place had ticks on their skins. Other letters 
on the same subject are received. In reply, we 
have been able to secure the followlna: valuable 
article from that eminent authority, Prof. 
James Law.— Eds. 

The Cause of Texas Fever, 

The cause of this disease was demonstrated 
by Dr Theobald Smith of the Bureau of Ani- 
mal Industrv to be a protozoon (Pyrosoma bioe- 
minum). wh'ch is usually met in pairs as micro- 
scopic pyriform bodies in the interior of the 
red blood globules. These lead to the breaking 
down of the globules and the diffusion of their 
constituents, including the red coloring matter, 
through the blood serum and tissues. White 
tissues like fat are colored yellow, and the 
urine is changed to a blood red or black color 
by reason of the passage of an abundance of 
this pigment. The mucous membranes lining 
the eyelids, nose and other passages are usually 
of a deep yellow. The temperature of the 
body rises to 104°, 106° or 108°, and pulse and 
breathing may be greatly accelerated. The 
animal usually becomes heavy, dull and stupid 
as the disease advances, though In some cases 
It is nervous and excitable. The muzzle is 
usually dry and, like the horns, ears and hoofs, 
and to a less extent the general skin, very hot. 
A careful examination of the skin will detect 
the presence of the cattle tick — the boophilus 
bovis. 

The Agency of the Tick. 

That the tick was In some way connected with 
the disease was recognized in the earlier half 
of the present century, but the presence of 
wood-ticks elsewhere, where Texas fever was 
unknown, tended to discredit the vulgar belief ; 
and it was only when the protozoon was found 
in the blood of the infected animal, and in that 
drawn into the stomach of the tick which ad- 
hered to the skin, that a sufiBf'ient explana^on 
was obtained. Then abundant evidence was 
accumulated to corroborate the conclusion. 
Southern cattle from which all the ticks had 
been carefully picked were no longer infecting, 
and might be carried north and placed among 



susceptible cattle without risk of Injury to the 
latter. Northern susceptible cattle could be 
carried to the Infected districts In the south and 
preserved from the disease, provided they were 
kept rigidly indoors, and never allowed to come 
in contact with the ticks. Yet the blood taken 
from the infected animal and injected Into the 
pusceptible one produced the disease, the 
syringe, in place of the tick, becoming the 
bearer of the germ-bearing blood. Finally, 
fields which were securely fenced and left for 
an entire vear without the admission of cattle 
might In the second year he safely pastured by 
susceptible cattle. The ticks In this case had 
perished for lack of the bovine host to carry 
them through an essential stage of their exist- 
ence. 

Development of Tick aod Disease. 

The adult cattle tick is an eight-legged para- 
site of the ox, and from this the development 
may be easily traced. In a bottle plugged 
with cotton, the females may be seen to lay 
eggs in from two to four days, and in three or 
four weeks, at a temperature of 70° to 80°, 
these eggs hatch out a mass of six-legged 
larvie. If kept very hot (80° to 90°), the Incu- 
bation may be shortened, so that the young ap- 
pear in fifteen days. The young ticks, if fur- 
nished with a little earth or leaves, may live 
through an entire winter — five or six months — 
without further development. The condition 
of further development appears to be the para- 
sitic life on cattle. If the six-legged larva is 
placed on an ox, it molts a week later, and 
emerges from the old skin as the eight-legged 
nympha. After a second week, lived on the 
skin of the ox. it molts a second time, becomes 
sexually mature, and is ready to reproduce its 
kind through egg-production. 

The incubation of the tick in a variable time 
according to temperature, explains the varying 
lapse of time in different cases, between the 
exposure of susceptible animals and the ap- 
pearance of the disease. If southern cattle in- 
fested by the ticks have passed once over a 
highway or pasture, and have left behind them 
the mature ticks, which have laid their eggs 
and died, it will take three or four weeks, at a 
moderate temperature, for these eggs to hatch 
out larval ticks which are capable of conveying 
the disease. Susceptible cattle, therefore, which 
have followed the southern stock on the same 
pasture, a day or two after the latter have 
passed, will not show the disease for about a 
month after the commencement of such expo- 
sure on the tick-infested pasture. Cattle may 
even be pastured on such land for a week or 
more after the southern cattle have passed, and 
yet escape infection. The explanation Is that 
there was during this time no active living tick 
to seize upon them and inoculate the deadly 
microorganism. The case would be different if 
young ticks, before or after their first molting, 
had been dropped on the pasture, as these not 
having completed their full round of existence, 



would promptly seize on anv available cattle as 
hosts on which they could live to full nriaturity, 
and In doing so would transmit the infection. 
Similarly, after the development of the flrst 
crop of larva from the eggs laid in the pasture, 
the latter remains Infested for the entire sum- 
mer season, and animals placed upon it may 
become tick-Infested and sicken in a few days. 
This latter condition is that of unfenced ranges 
and open woodlands in the southern States, 
within the Texa<* fever area, In summer. 

Relation to other Domestic Animals. 

The cattle tick is prec-mlnentlv the parasite 
of the bovine race. If therefore a pasture can 
be thoroughly secluded from cattle for a year, 
the tick, which requires an animal host to 
enable it to reach maturity, almost of necesity 
perishes, and the pasture is rendered safe. 
Whether the tick can become parasitic and ma- 
ture on any other domestic animal has been 
questioned. I have found what appeared to be 
the cattle tick on the ears of horses. The ticks 
commonly found on dotrs are usually of a dif- 
f»^rent species. With their Insatiable appetite 
for blood, It would not be surprising If th« cat- 
tle tick should occasionally seek in other ani- 
mals sangumeous food which is essential to 
their further development to maturity ; yet ex- 
perience shows that this is at best an excep- 
tional resort, and that if the bovln« host is ex- 
cluded the danger of their propagation is re- 
duced to a minimum. 

Susceptibility and Previous Exposure. 

Stock owners in the South often find that 
the disease prevails In a fatal form among 
thoroughbred cattle, while It has little or no 
effecr, on common stock. They are tempted 
therefore to conclu'le that high bred cattle are 
more susceptible. The true explanation is that 
thoroughbred cattle have either been recently 
Imported into the South, with all their native 
northern susceptibility or, in order to preserve 
the purity of their offspring, they have been 
confined to well fenced pastures, to which the 
common cattle which run in the woods and 
unfenced ranges, have no access. If therefore 
the fenced pastures of the thoroughbreds, have 
been laid do«^n In grass after culture of other 
crops, or, if they have been left for an entire 
year without depasturage by cattle of any kind, 
the ticks are exterminated, and the thorough- 
breds placed on such fields remain as suscepti- 
ble as if they had but newly arrived from the 
North. When, on the contrary. Infected and 
tick-covered cattle are carried from near the 
Gulf of Mexico into one of our northern States, 
and when, in the summer season, northern cat- 
tle follow these upon the same fields, the in- 
fection seizes all without, discriinmatlon, and 
the veriest scrub, shows no more resistance or 
tolerance, than the most aristocratic Short- 
Horn, Devon, or Jersey. On the contrary if the 
blue-blood thoroughbred has flrst seen the sua 
on the coast of the gulf, she shows the same im- 
munity from the disease as is possessed by the 
southern scrub, and if carried north will convey 
the infection to the common cattle of the North 
in as deadly a form as if she were one of the 
long-hnrned Texans of thirty years ago. In- 
susceptibility belones to no race or breed, 
but is simply the result of a previous exj)Osure 



to poisons podnoed in the system by the disease 
germ, and to the acquired power of tolerance 
and resistance that comes from a mild, non-fatal 
attack. In tbi; same wav cattle that have grown 
up m an area of rinderpest, lung-plaeue or 
anthrax are Immune from the disease in ques- 
tion ; they have survived an exposure to it in 
early life and are thereafter to a large extent 
proof against Its invasion. 

Treatment of Texas Fever. 

The treatment is exceedinsrly unsatisfactory, 
since by the time symptoms are observed, there 
has already been such extensive de6trncti(m of 
blood elobules and consequent im{)airraent of 
vital functions, that the victim Is virtually be- 
yond heln. Moreover the germ (pyrosoma) has 
coloniz*^d itself in the blood and tissues, where 
It Is multiplying with great rapidity, and anv 
antiseptic or g'^rralcifie wh^h can be introduced 
into the circulation in quantity sufficient to 
check this Increase, or to kill the parasite, is 
quite as dangerous to the living cells of the 
blood and tissues. Mild ca^es w*ll recover 
under the 'internal use of antiseptics (such as 
carbolic acid In drachm doses, associated with 
copperas (2 to 4 dr. do'es), or other prepar.atlon 
of Iron, but slight cases occurring: in the south in 
partially immune animals, usually recover with- 
out treatment. 

Prevention of Texas Fever. 

Our firiit object must be to prevent the inocu- 
lation of the fatal germ carried by the tiek. This 
may be done bv removing the ticks from the 
skins of cattle coming from infested districts 
and placlnff such cattle on tick-free pastures. 
Infected cattle that are kept free from ticks, 
may mingle with susceptible cattle on the sam". 
pastures, or in the same buHaings, cars, loading 
banks, yards or vessels without proving a source 
of d<in2:er. For the same reason southern cat- 
tle from infected lands can be safely shipped 
north after the ticks have been destroyed or 
rendered torpid by the first killing frosts of win- 
ter, and until they a'-eas:ain called Into activity 
by the returning heats of spring. 

The ticks may be picked by hand from all 
parts of the skin of cattle that are about to be 
put on tick-free pastures, care being taken that 
the cattle are protected against taking on oth- 
ers from the grass or brush before entering the 
protected field. 

Again, the parasite may be destroyed by a 
coating of oil on the animal host, since, like 
other insects, they breathe by spiracles on the 
surface, and if these are blocked by the oil, the 
insect Is suffocated. A liberal application Is 
necessarv, but any kind of bland oU will serve 
the purpose — whale oil, crude cottonseed oil, 
lard oil, sweet oil. The oU may be applied by 
means of a sponge, special care being taken to 
cover the whole skin, and particularly the more 
delicate parts, in the groin, or Inside the fore 
and hind limbs. 

A wholesale method of applyine: the oil Is to 
make a bath just wide enough for the ox to 
w«lk through, deep enough to immerse Its 
whole body, and having two Inclined planes at 
the two ends for the animal to walk down Into 
it and up out of it. The bath must be water- 
tlirht, and may be sunk so that its upper edtje 
is on a level with the ground. It is filled with 



water, on the surface of which a thlr>k layer of 
the oil IS floated, lu walkinj; up the Inclineil 
plane out of the bath, the ox receives a coatdit; 
of oil, and if delayed a short time before leav- 
ing the incline the surplus oil will drop ofT «nd 
ruu back into the bath. The efficiency will 
depend soraewhai on the slowness with which 
the animal walks out, so that the layer of oil 
may remain unbroken and leave an inunction 
on every part of the skin. Cattle dressed in 
this way may be shipped north, or turned into 
a tick-free pasture with comparatively little 
danger. 

To make the oU more effective, it may be 
medicated with one of various agents that are 
poisonous to the ticks. Thus before distribu- 
ting the oil on the surface of the water it may 
be thoroughly mixed with oil of tar in the pro- 
portion of one part to twenty parts of oil. 

The Bureau of Animal Industry recommends 
as the best and at the same time a cheap dress- 
ing a mixture of 300 lb. of flowers of sulphur 
and 3500 gallons of extra dynamo oil, the com- 
bination being made while hot. This is a 
perfectly non-poisonous and non-irritating ap- 
plication, and IS probably the most trustworthy 
that has yet been brought forw-^rd. 
Immuniziug Cattle. 

Cattle born in the infected district grow up 
^comparatively immune. It may be supposed 
that, inured to the poisons of the Texas fever 
germ, communicated through the uterine secre- 
tions and milk of the dam, if not indeed to the 
germ itself passing into the blood of the foetus 
before birth, they acquire a tolerance, such 
as that of an animal that has had a non-fatal 
attack of tne disease, and when infected by the 
ticks it either shows no visible disorder or has 
the malady In a mild form. Attempts to give 
immunity by long continued use of the food 
and water of an infected locality have, in the 
absence of the ticks, failed to furnish im- 
munity. In an experiment of the Bureau of 
Animal Industry, northern cattle were kept for 
an entire year indoors, or in tick-free tlelds in 
an otherwise Infected district in Alabama, and 
fell victims to the disease at the end of the 
year, as soon as they were exposed to the ticks. 
Immunity, then, cannot be secured through 
any soluble products of the germ that may be 
present in the drinking water. Drs. Connoway 
and Robert and Prof. Dodson in the same way 
affirm of the Texas fever blood after it has 
been sterilized : " It contains neither a toxin 
nor antitoxin that is potent to induce a perma- 
nent or even a transient immunity." Dr. Fran- 
cis, ooerating on young calves, claims better 
results ; he had but two deaths in 45 treated. 

Immunization has however been secured by 
inoculation of minimum aoses of the fresh blood 
of infected cattlf^ (Bureau of Animal Industry), 
and by using a minute dose of the detibrinated 
blood (Australian Report). 

A method which has been found effective in 
the hands of Drs. Connoway and Robert is to 
infest the susceptible animal by setting free on 
its skin about 25 ticks, and when the animal has 
recovered from the resulting fever to infect it 
anew by applying about lOO ricks. In this way 
they have succeeded in inducing immunity with 
a very small percentage of loss, so that they 
recommend the method for thoroughbred cattle 



that are to be sliipped south. The danger Is 
much less to calvts ihan to adult animals, and 
as carried out in cool or winter weather, rather 
than extreme heats. 

Ynt in all such cases a certain proportion of 
the animals operated on die of the resulting dis- 
ease, so that these means cannot be advocated as 
thoroughly satisfactory. A still more serious ob- 
jection is that the method aims at saving the 
individual anunil only, and has no tendency to- 
ward diminishing the number of ticks or the 
danger to susceptitde animals (born or im- 
ported) toward contracting the disease. It 
contemplates the infecting material remaining 
in the district to the end of time, it may pay 
to immunize valuable thoroughbred animals 
that are to be introduced, but. to propose to ap- 
ply this on all the common stock, is to pro- 
nounce its condemnation. The cost would be 
prohibitory. 

Eradication of Texas Fever. 

The mo«st important question after all in con- 
nection with Texas fever is the possibility of 
eradicating it from the continent. This would 
entail legislation and administration in each in- 
fested State, which would lead to the universal 
destruction of the pathogenic cattle tick. Such 
a result is undoubtedly practicable, ai^d if prac- 
ticable it becomes the duty of each State to 
take the necessary stf-ps to put it in operation. 
If it is feasible to rid a farm of the ticks by 
judicious fencing and non-pasturage for a year 
of each field in succession, it is quite as much 
so for a State to enforce fencing and the alter- 
nate use of different enclosures on successive 
years until the tick has been done away with. 
This entails, of course, that pasturage of cattle 
shall be prohibited on all open, unfenced land, 
and there will be some outlay or loss in fencing 
or in the temporary loss of pasturage. But the 
perennial advantage that must come from the 
achievement will far more than compensate for 
any such temporary loss. Infringement of the 
law should of course be visited by a legal 
penalty, as it would be by the very natural one 
that the survival of the ticks on the pastures 
would necessitate a continuous quarantine of 
such pastures and herds until the ticks had 
been thoroughly exterminated. 

Under present conditions, the cattle indus- 
tries of the South are so handicapped by this 
disease that they canoot profess to compete 
with those of the North. Northern States at 
present refuse to admit, during the warm sea- 
son (from frost to frost), any cattle coming 
from the southern infected region. Southern 
live-stock owners are therefore debarred from 
the northern market except during the period 
of cold weather. Nor can the southern stock- 
owner import northern cattle for the improve- 
ment of his herds except under the most rigid 
precautions of seclusion indoors for irom three 
to six: months after their arrival. Even then 
there is no absolute certainty that they can be 
safely turned out into the soutnern pastures. 
Unless such imported cattle have been infected 
and immunized, they cannot be safely trusted 
on the tick-infected pastures. It cannot be de 
nied that even the native-born and immune 
southern cattle suffer to a certain extent from 
the infection implanted by the ticks. On the 
luxuriant pastures of lespedeza and Bermuda 



grass, and with rich soiUnp on corn, cow^pea, 
tfec, under a eun which ehould conduce to 
rapid development and fattening, the cattle can 
with great difficulty only be got Into what 
would be considered as prime condition in Chi- 
cago or New- York. When slaughtered, they 
show abnormally large spleens and a condition 
of the blood which bespeak the harmful opera- 
tion of the Texas fever blood-parasite. These 
cattle do not die, they do not even visibly 
sicken, but they fall to attain to the splendid 
development which the rich southern field pro- 
ducts should secure. The loss which Is sus- 
tained by this general inferiority of the south- 
ern cattle Is enormous. But ttiis does not give 
the full measure of the loss ; for In the absence 
of this embargo oti the Industry, a much greater 
area would be devoted to stock raitjing, and in 
a land where continuous outdoor life is possible, 
and where one can therefore discount tubercu- 
losis and other pests of close stabling, a rich 
harvest could be reaped In both beef and dairy 
products. The banishing of the tick, and of 
the fever which it carries, would make the 
South a most desirable field for the production 
of high-class cattle products which could be 
put on the market with a guarantee against In- 
fection communicnble to man. 

The prospective increase of cattle would 
amply compensate for the temporary incon- 
venience of the necessary restrictions on the 
present comparatively small numbers of the 
bovine race in the 8outh. On the 55,414 square 
miles of Illinois, the census gives over 3,000,000 
cattle. On the 3:W,807 square miles of the 
seven coast States from Virginia to Mississippi, 
there are but 4,395,503. If stocked as heavily 
as Illinois, these States would support over 
18,000,000 head. These, at $15 per head, would 
represent $270,000,000. The improvement in 
quality of the cattle and the enhanced prices 
of the cattle products would greatly Increase 
the general value. 

To make such a movement effective, however. 
It must be made a subject of State legislation 
and administration. Tbe private owner can, it 
is true, rid his own fenced pastures of the tick 
and his herds of the disease, but his secur'ty 
depends on the perfection of his fence. Let 
this be broken down by an act of carelessness 
or malice, or by a storm or tire, and the tick- 
infested cattle of his neighbor will enter and 
render his pasture deadly for over a year to 
come. Or his own treasured cattle may escape 
Into a tick-infested place, which will be their 
sure death warrant, and the occasion of loss or 
ruin to the owner. 

Then, again, U. may be affirmed that, under 
the present condition of things, the private 
owner, who has protected his herds at the cost 
of much care and outl«y, must continue the 
same precautions, year by year, without hope 
of relief, since, unless every other private owner 
can be persuaded of the value and importance 
of the step, and will undertake it In the same 
enlightened spirit, th« surrounding country 
must remain for all time a so"rce of the great- 
est danger, and he cannot even drive his pro- 
tected animals over a highway without exposing 
them to almost certain death. Every negro, 
who turns his scrub cow out in the woods or 
on the commons, will undo the best directed 



elTorts of any combination of private owners 
of hf-rds. 

On the other hand, a statute thoroughly en- 
forced, which will flose for a year or two all 
unfenced woods and ranges against cattle, and 
which will divide all enclosed pastures into 
separate fields, with a neutral zone between, 
and will provide that no field shall be occupied 
on two successive years bv bovine animals, will 
practically ensure the extinction of the ticks in 
the course of two or three years. Should it 
even be discovered that any other anhnal than 
the ox acts as a host of the cattle tick at any 
one point. It will be easy to extend the prohi- 
bition so as to Include such animal, and to carry 
the work to a complete success in a year or two 
longer. The resulting development of the en- 
tire South would abundantly compensate for 
any such delay In any particular quarter. For 
be It noted, that a success of this kind, like all 
true sanitary triumphs, is a lasting one. The 
ticks once exterminated, can never be restored, 
unless the eggs or Insect should be relmported 
from abroad. There would therefore be no 
longer any reason for the prohibition of pas- 
turage In woods or on commons AU the liber- 
ties of the present would return, each freighted 
with a value which it never bore before, and 
the southern States would become the home of 
fine ca'tle, and the source of the best bovine 
products. 

A further consideration comes up. The south 
of Mexico, the West Indian Islands, and the 
Central and South American States, all harbor 
the disease known to us as Texas fever, and our 
freedom from its ravages cannot be secured un- 
less we prohibit the importation of cattle from 
these States. If thev, too, would learn the les- 
son, and could eradicate the cattle tick, then 
their cattle might be safely admitted : but u.ntil 
this has been assured bevond any shadow of a 
doubt, the only course of safety Is an absolute 
exclusion. 

But the eradication of the cattle tick from the 
West Indies and tropical America is not the 
simple question that It is for our southern 
States. Where there is no frost, and practically 
no winter, the larval tick, which has an almost 
indefinite power of survival, may easily live 
until the following year, so that the pastures 
would require to be abandoned of cattle for a 
much longer period in order to Insure the des- 
truction of the offending insect. The same may 
hold good for some parts of Florida and of the 
gulf coast, and Islands of some of the States 
west of Florida, so that they might require a 
much longer period of quarantine and vacating 
of pastures than in the case of tbe great body 
of the States now infected. But the quaran- 
tine of such a small area, even if permanent, 
would be of small account as compared with 
the serious losses to which the southern States 
are now subjected on account of this disease. 

The adoption of such a measure as proposed 
would demand that careful provision should be 
made to meet the different conditions present- 
ed at different points. These, howevpr, are 
mere matters of detail, which can be satisfac- 
torily worked out by any one who is Intimately 
acquainted with the pathology and causes of 
the malady, and which need not be introduced 
Into this already lengthy article. 



Contagious Abortion in Cows. 



By Professor James Law, 

New York State Veterinary College, Ithaca, N. Y. 



Forms of Abortion. — Cows are liable tO' abortion from a great 
variety of causes^ some of which, like mechanical injuries, are 
purely individual to the animal and show little tendency to ex- 
tend to other members of the herd. Other forms attack a con- 
siderable proportion of the herd at the same time, or in succession, 
and thus appear as if they partook of a contagious character. In 
many such cases, however^ the implication of a number of preg- 
nant cows in the same herd is only a common result of a special 
injurious condition, to which all are alike exposed, and the re- 
moval of this is the signal for the disappearance of the disease. 
Thus unwholesome food of all kinds which undergoes fermenta- 
tion in the first stomach, causing the accumulation of gas (bloat- 
ing) will at times cause a wide-spread abortion. The consump- 
tion of ice-cold water usually stimulates the womb to contraction 
and the unborn calf to active movements which can be easily 
observed in the right flank. This, frequently repeated or carried 
to excess in susceptible animals, will at times cause abortions. 
The consumption of irritant vegetables, which have a special 
tendency to act on the kidneys or womb, are causes of general 
abortions in herds. Ergoted grasses have long been known as 
causes of abortion, and the same remark applies to smut and 
several other fungi. It is true that these cryptogamlc vegeta;ble 
products vary much in their character and strength according 
to the variations of the season, and the local conditions under 



which they grow, as well as the time or stage at which they are 
harvested, so that the ergots and smuts of one year appear to 
be comparatively harmless^ while those of another year, or season 
or locality are very injurious. The fact remains, however, that 
under given conditions of growth they are unquestionably causes 
of abortion, and in such cases the abortions are wide-spread in 
the herd or in different herds in the same district. Cases such 
as these are easily mistaken for contagious ones, though there 
is in thq system of the aborting animal no self-propagating germ 
which would produce the disease if transferred to another animal. 
Still other conditions may produce wide-spread abortions in the 
absence of any specific contagious germ. On the magnesian lime- 
stones of New York cows are very subject to small stones in the 
kidneys during the dry feeding of winter, and when this is added 
to other existing causes, like the riding of cows in heat, attacks 
made with the horns of their fellows, squeezing in half-closed 
gates, over driving, sloping stalls, or too laxative food, abortions 
are likely to be induced. In other susceptible animals the prox- 
imity to a slaughter-house^ the sight and smell of dead carcases, 
or carrion, etc., will excite a pregnant cow to abortion. 

The Contagious Form. — Any of the usual causes of sporadic or 
accidental abortion may co-exist with the true contagious ele- 
ment and give unusual energy to it, yet it is of the utmost im- 
portance to identify the contagion in all cases in which it is 
present as the essential cause. This can usually be done by a 
careful inquiry into the history of the outbreak. 

When a herd has been continuously healthy up to the time of 
the introduction of a cow brought from a herd where abortion 
has been prevailing, and when, following her advent, one and 
another and another of the original numbers of the herd abort, 
without any apparent cause in the way of change of feed, water, 
barn, stalls or general management, the evidence of the intro- 
duction of the element of contagion by the cow in question is 
very circumstantial and forcible. If pregnant cows standing 
next to the new cow or near to her are among those that early abort 
the argument for contagion is still further corroborated. If the 



3 

trouble continues in the herd year after year, attacking fresh 
animals some months after their purchase, the case becomes still 
stronger. 

Or take another case. A cow is sent from a herd to be served 
by a bull which has been allowed to serve an aborting cow, and 
her resulting pregnancy is terminated by abortion before the 
regular time, and this is followed by successive abortions by 
different animals in the previously healthy herd. Upon the face 
of it, an outbreak of this kind is manifestly contagious, and in 
the absence of any other appreciable cause for the trouble, It 
may be safely held to be so. 

Or, a bull is brought from a herd where abortions have taken 
place, and after his arrival the cows begin to abort, the first cases 
being in those which the new bull has served. The occurrence 
is manifestly due to contagion. 

Or, a newly purchased cow aborts, and is disposed of in con- 
sequence, and another coW;, placed in the same stall, in due time 
aborts also, and others follow in due time, especially those that 
stood next to or near to this stall. Everything points to an in- 
troduced contagion. 

Such indications might be varied indefinitely, all variations, 
however, having the one thing in common, that the evidence of 
infection stands out prominentl}^ and unmistakably. The infec- 
tion may have been evidently carried by the tail, tongue, soiled 
stall, litter, gutter, rubbing post^ fence or other object, yet the 
fact of co'utagion can be demonstrated with reasonable certainty. 

These conclusions have been repeatedly affirmed by actual ex- 
perimental transmission. The Scottish abortion committee found 
that healthy, i>regnant cows often escape, though standing near 
or even next to an aborting cow, but that when a piece of cotton 
wool was inserted in the vagina of the aborting cow for twenty 
minutes, and was then transferred to that of the healthy one, the 
latter invariably aborted. Oaltier found that the infecting 
vaginal mucus of the aborting cow, when transferred to the same 
passage in other animals, caused abortion in the sow, ewe, goat^ 
rabbit and guinea-pig; whilst if it was intensified by passing 



through the rodents, it would similarly affect the mare, bitch and 
cat. 

Bang subjected two cows, which were three months pregnant 
and had come from healthy herds, to rei)eated yaginal injections, 
with the products of culture of the abortion bacillus in serum 
glycerine bouillon. Three injections were made on April 14th, 
May 23d and June 4th, and on June 24th one cow aborted. The 
other was ill, and when killed she was found to carry a dead 
foetus. Pure cultures of the abortion bacillus were found in 
foetal membranes and liquids of both animals. 

Casual Infections. — In a case which came under the obseryation 
of the writer recently, a family cow, kept in a barn where no 
abortion had preyiously occurred, was taken for seryice to a bull 
in a herd where abortion was preyailing, and though she was 
only present at the latter place for a few minutes, she aborted in 
the sixth month. 

Another cow, from the same aborting herd, was taken into 
another herd at a distance of about two miles, and where abortion 
had been unknown up to that time, and some months later a cow 
standing in the next stall to her aborted. The remainder of thi& 
herd was sold soon after, so that the further progress of the dis- 
ease could not be easily followed. 

Jansen, as quoted by Sand, reports the case of a cow from an 
aborting herd haying been taken into a herd that had been pre- 
yiously quite free from the disease. Soon after her arriyal she 
aborted, and later cow after cow of the original herd aborted. 
The owner kept the matter secret, and sent his cows to a neigh- 
bor's bull for seryice, with the result that for two years abortion 
preyailed among the cows seryed by this bull. 

Tobiassen quotes the case of a cow in an aborting herd, which 
calyed a fortnight before the regular time. The calf was at once 
sent to another farm where no abortions had occurred, and placed 
in the same building with the pregnant cows, all of which later 
aborted. The outbreak thus started lasted for seyeral years. 

J. R. Jansen reports that a cow brought from an infected farm, 
for fattening purposes, proyed to be pregnant and finally aborted. 



5 

and that twenty-four of the pregnant cows on the farm aborted 
in the same 3'ear. 

Morck reports that a cow which had aborted a fortnight pre- 
viously was taken to a farm where abortions had never been 
known. She aborted during her next pregnancy, and so did all 
of the herd^ nine in number. 

Christensen records the occurrence of a general abortion in a 
previously healthy herd, members of which had been sent for 
service to the bull of a neighboring aborting herd. 

Uygaard reports that a bull from a healthy herd, but which had 
been allowed to serve some cows from a neighboring infected 
herd, was sold to go on a previously healthy farm, where he was 
put to fourteen cows only. Of these twelve aborted, while the 
other cows, served by another bull, remained well. 

Cases like the above are not to be explained by some imaginary 
unwholesome conditions of the environments, since in every in- 
stance the surroundings of the animals and the conditions of life 
remained the same, and the only appreciable cause of the out- 
break in every case was the contact with an animal from an abort- 
ing herd. 

Experimental Infections. — Any possible doubt however, may be 
removed by the cases of experimental transmission of the disease, 
toy the transference of the mucus from the vagina of an aborting 
cow, to the vagina of a healthy pregnant one. The experiments 
of Bang have been already quoted. 

The Scottish Commission (Woodhead, McFadyean and Atkin) 
took a pregnant cow from a healthy herd and placed her in a 
stable where a large number had aborted. They also inserted 
into the vagina of this cow a plug of cotton wool, which had been 
left for twenty minutes in the vagina of a recently aborted cow, 
which had recently aborted. This was repeated the next day, 
the plug being left in the vagina for several hours on each 
occasion. Within a month some indications of a threatened 
abortion showed themselves, and a seven months calf was 
dropped on the seventieth day after the inauguration of the 
•experiment. 



6 

In a second experiment, a coav six moullis in lalf and taken 
from a healthy herd, was placed in a stable with an aborting 
herd and a quantit^^ of vaginal mucus from a cow which has 
recently aborted was injected under the skin of the vulva. She 
calved prematurely at the end of the eighth month. 

Willamsen, when treating a herd for abortion took a piece of 
the afterbirth of an aborting cow and rubbed it on the vagina of 
a healthy cow of his own, which had a habit of carrying her calf 
fourteen days over time. Five days after she had premature 
parturition. 

He took a fragment of the foetal membrane from the cow just 
named and rubbed on the vagina of a pregnant cow, condemned 
to slaughter for tuberculosis. In seventeen days the cow aborted. 

Abortion Germ. — A number of investigators have sought assid- 
uous'ly for the germ of abortion. More than tw^enty years ago 
Franck attributed the disease to leptothrix vaginalis, a spherical 
organism united in chain form. 

The Scottish Abortion Commission isolated no less than five 
different bacteria from the abortion membranes and vaginal 
mucus, but failed to identify any one of these as the essential 
cause of the disease. 

Nocard found in the fibrino-purulent matter between the 
chorion and womb, in aborting animals, two different organ- 
isms, a micro'cocus (globular microbe) isolated or united in 
chains of two or three or more, and a short thin bacillus (rod- 
shaped microbe) isolated or attached together in pairs. These 
he did not find in healthy pregnant cows. They seemed to have 
no evil influence on the animal in the intervals between pregnan- 
cies, so that he concluded that they caused disease of the foetus 
and foetal membranes alone and did not affect the womb or 
pregnant animal. He allows, however, that the germ can survive 
in the unimpregnated womb until the next pregnancy, and may 
thus be kept up for years in the same animal. 

Galtier on the other hand has conveyed the disease by feeding 
and inoculation of the milk or abortion membranes, to the sheep, 
goat, pig, rabbit and guinea pig, and claims accordingly that the 



disease is one affecting the general system of the pregnant animal 
and that the germs can be conveyed through the blood to the 
womb. He claims that the germ is intensified in force by passing 
through the body of the rabbit, or guinea pig and can then infect 
horses, dogs and cats. 

Chester of the Delaware College xVgri cultural Experiment 
Station, found in the placentae of aborting cows a bacillus, 
which in form and habit of growth closely resembled the common 
bacillus of the large intestine (bacillus coli communis). In the 
fermentation test however, it showed a marked difference from 
the colon bacillus, to which it seems to be so closely allied. In- 
oculated on rabbits it w^as not fatal. Injected into the vagina 
of a pregnant cow, it caused slight discharge four or five days, 
but the calf was carried to full time 6J months after the in- 
jection. 

Bang found in aborting cows, between the womb and the 
foetal membranes, a considerable odorless liquid exudate of a 
gelatinoid appearance, and some pus cells. There was active 
catarrh of the mucus membrane of the womb which continued 
after abortion and often maintained the disease into the next 
pregnancy. In the exudate was an abundance of very small 
bacilli which stained deeply with aniline colors, excepting in a 
vacuole or mucleus which was less highly colored. This bacillus 
grew well in serum — glycerine boiuillon, and more sparingly in 
serum — gelatineagar. In the latter it showed a remarkable 
peculiarity in growing with special luxuriance in different zones 
at tw^o separate depths, beneath the surface, while there was an 
intervening clear space in which little or no growth took place. 
This preference for two different grades of abundance of atmos- 
pheric air and rejection of the intervening grade serves to 
identify the bacillus in a very striking manner. Injected into 
the vagina in two pregnant cows from healthy herds it produced 
abortion in one on the 21st day, and death of the calf without 
prompt abortion in the second. It also induced uterine catarrn 
and abortion in ewes, rabbits, guinea pigs and mares, when it 
was injected into the vagina. In several cases in which it was 



8 

injected under the skin or into the veins, it was later found in 
abundance in the interior of the womb and the foetal membranes 
and bowels of the foetus. It can therefore live in the blood and 
pass from that into the womb to start its baneful work there. 

Dr. V. A. Moore and the present writer have made a series of 
experiments at the New York State Veterinary College. We 
have found in the foetal membranes and uterine mucus, of a num- 
ber of aborting cows, in different counties of the State, and 
situated widely apart from each other, a bacillus which in form 
and culture — experiments closely resembles bacillus coli com- 
munis. This was nearh' alwa^^s found in pure cultures, in a few 
cases only were other microbes found and these only such as 
are found in the healthy vagina. It was never found in the foetal 
membranes nor in the mucus of the womb in cows which had 
come to the period of parturition in healthy herds. It agreed 
in most respects with the bacillus found by Chester, but differed 
somewhat in fermentation tests. It differed also in being fatal 
to rabbits when inoculated on these animals. Injected into the 
vagina in three pregnant cows, it continued to live on its lining 
membrane, producing more or less catarrh and mucopurulent 
discharge in the different cases, yet all three carried their 
calves to the full time as judged by the forward condition of the 
teeth, one having calved on the 123d day, the second on the 167th 
and the third on the 190th after injection. 

The investigations at the Delaware College Experiment Sta- 
tion and the New York State Veterinary College, indicate that 
the contagious abortion which was met with in the cows of 
these States is essentially different from the forms studied in 
Europe by Nocard and Bang respectively. The facts that the 
same germ was found alone or, exceptionally, along with the 
normal microbes of the healthy vagina in the womb of every 
aborting cow, and that it was not found in the healthy cow which 
had calved at full time, and that the generative passages were 
the seat of a catarrh, alike in the cows that aborted, and in those 
that were injected with cultures of the germ found in the womb 
of the aborting animal, is virtually all but conclusive, that this 
microbe is the essential cause of the abortion. 



The fact that abortion has not so far occurred in the pregnant 
<!Ows injected expenmentally with the artificial cultures of this 
germ, only serves to show that under certain conditions the 
microbe operates slowly. In our cases the cows were dry during 
nearly the w^hole conrse of the experiment, and stood quietly in 
stalls, so that there was little accessory cause to assist in pre- 
cipitating abortion. It is further w^orthy of note that in the 
form of abortion habitually prevalent in New York, it is the rule 
rather than the exception that the period of incubation often ex- 
tends to the sixth month. In a recent case, which came under the 
observation of the present w^riter and in which the cow con- 
tracted the infection by the service of a bull in a neighboring 
aborting herd, the abortion took place at the sixth month of 
pregnancy. In our experimental cases, it was certain that the 
same bacillus, which was alone found in the aborting womb, and 
w^hich was present there in great abundance remained present 
in the generative passages of the infected animals up to the time 
of parturition and thereafter. 

It is worthy of notice that the recent bacterio'liOgical investiga- 
tions of the disease in Europe shows that the pathogenic germ 
is present in large numbers in the digestive organs of the calf, 
that the new born calf can convey the disorder into a fresh herd 
(Sand) and that the viable calves of infected cows, are liable to 
-die from intestinal disorders a few days after birth. Galtier, the 
Marquis de Poncius and Pry insist strongly on this. On a farm 
on the estate of the Marquis where abortion has prevailed for 
over twenty years, calves of infected cows show at birth or very 
shortly after symptoms of broncho-pneumonia and of a complica- 
tion of nervous disorders. They are breathless, wheeze, dis- 
charge from the nose, cough, scour, have convulsions and other 
nervous troubles. A large proportion of such calves die; and 
their lungs are found in part red, consolidated and destitute of 
air, w^hile the air tubes contain a mucu-purulent liquid. Lesions 
denoting inflammation of the pleural covering of the lungs of the 
liver and of the intestines are common. 



10 

This coincidence of a fatal disease in many of the surviving- 
calves has not been specially noticed in the abortinj2: herds iu 
New York. Should it be found to be wanting or infre(|uent, U 
will establish still another distinction between the European 
abortions, as noticed by Nocard, Galtier, Sand, Bang and others^ 
and the American type, as observed in Delaware and New York. 

In investigating this subject it miust be borne in mind that any 
catarrhal condition of the mucous membrane of the uterus hinders 
concei^tion. and becomes a direct cause of abortion, and that the 
forms of invasion of the womb by pus-producing g^rms are as 
numerous as the number of different irritant germs that can live 
in the membrane. Tlie question as to how many of these may 
induce contagious abortion is to be determined by the suscepti- 
bility of "^he membrane to the attack of each particular germ, 
and whether the latter can retain all its power of survival and 
virulence in passing from one animal to another. The presump- 
tion is, therefore^ in favor of a variety of forms of contagious 
abortion, each due to its own specific microbe or microbes, rather 
than of a single unvarying type of the disease. It is the work 
of the future investigator to demonstrate the extent and nature 
of such variations, and to place the diagnosis and treatment of 
each on a substantial basis. 

The indication that there are probably at least two forms of 
con"^agious abortion in cows raises the question whether both are 
to be found in our American herds, and, if not, whether there is 
not an urgent demand for such a rigid quarantine and inquiry 
into the condition of all imported cattle as will establish a re- 
liable barrier against the more dangerous foreign disorder? No 
less important is it that w^e should recognize the presence of the 
more dangerous disease if it should already have a foothold in 
American herds, and trace its cause, nature and diagnostic 
symptoms, so that the treatment appropriate to each individual 
outbreak may be promptly and intelligently applied. The tens 
of thousands of dollars lost every year through the prevalence of 
contagious abortions in the dairy herds of New York would jus- 
tify a liberal outlay to establish our knowledge and practice on 
a rational and scientific fo-undation. In Europe the loss on each 
aborting cow is set at from |12 to |2o per annum. 



11 

DO THE SAME ANBIALS ABORT SEVERAL YEARS IN 

SUCCESSION? 

The qiiostion of persistent abortion, year after year, by tho 
same cow, is one of far-reaching impoTtance. If a first contagious 
abortion entails a second, a third, a fourth and a fifth in the same 
animal, in as many successive years, then manifestly her preserva- 
tion is a mere squandering of money, apart from the danger of 
her transmitting the disease to other and healthy animals. If, 
however, on the other hand she herself fails to abort the second 
or the third year, yet if she continues to carry in her generative 
passages the germs of the malady, as potent as ever for evil to 
other pregnant cows^ her preservation in her present condition 
is a hidden source of the infection, tliat can still spread from 
her to all new and susceptible cows which may be added to the 
herd. 

It was long supposed that repeated abortion for an indefinite 
number of successive years was inevitable in the animal which 
was once infected. There is no dombt that certain cases give 
color to this belief. In an organ so nervously susceptible as the 
womb, there is always a tendency to repeat the abortion under 
the stimulus of a new pregnancy and the gradual distension 
and development of the uterine walls. Yet statistics show that 
this only applies to a small proportion of cows, and these the 
most excitable and nervous. The tendency toward insuscepti- 
bility to the deleterioius action of the germ, which still may be 
present, is in the cow greater as a rule than the disposition 
toward a nervous increase of the susceptibility. The difficulty 
in reaching a conclusion on this point depends on the fact that 
stock owners very commonly dispose of aborting cows, and as 
the freshly brought cows are sooner or later attacked, it is too 
confidently assumed that the old cows, too, would have aborted 
had they been retained. Many years ago observant New York 
dairymen had noticed that the same cow rarely aborted over 
three years in succession and the majority not over two. Quite 
recently the owner of a large herd, who had had much experience 
with the disease, assured me that the rule was that a cow did not 



12 

abort a secoud time. The continuance of abortion in the herd 
was mainlj^ among newly purchased cows, and others that had 
not been previously attacked. The same is measurably true of 
the Enropean abortions. Nocard says that after three to five 
years there is an acquired immunity. Only heifers and the cows 
that have been recently brought in abort. Penberthy says that 
in case of repeated abortion in the same cow, the calf is carried 
longer each successive year until it comes to its full term. Sand, 
in his symposium of the experience of Danish veterinarians, says 
it is quite exceptional that a cow should continue to abort, but 
outbreaks of abortion disappear spontaneously if no new cows 
are brought in. 

In the main this is endorsed by the experience of Bang. In a 
herd of 200 head, in the course of several years, 83 aborted in 
their first pregnancy, and of these only 20 aborted in the second, 
and 7 failed to breed. Counting these latter as having aborted, 
this amounted to less than one-third, while over two-thirds of 
the cows which aborted the previous year carried the calf to full 
time. In the herd only 30 aborted for two successive years and 
only 6 for three years running. 

Paulsen quotes the case of a herd of IG, seven of which were 
sent for service to a bull in an aborting herd. All seven aborted; 
five at ten weeks^ one at three months and one at four and one- 
half months before the normal period of parturition. One of the 
seven was sold, but the remaining six all went full time in the 
following year. 

Morck records the case of a herd of IG cows, of which the ma- 
jority aborted in the same year. The owner disposed of all the 
aborting animals and replaced them b}' others freshly purchased. 
Next year the new stock aborted, together with some of the cows 
that had been held over. He continued this course for eight 
years without any improvement, and then decided to keep the 
aborting cows, as well as the others. In two years the affection 
disappeared from the herd. 

Such small herds, in w^hich all become early infected, and in 
which there are not yearly additions of young animals in their 



13 

first pregnancy, nor the opportunity for a continuous extension 
into new animals that have previously escaped infection, furnish 
a better opportunity than do the larger herds, to trace the ac- 
quirement of artificial immunity. 

Prevention and Treatment. — Admitting the frequency of ac- 
quired insusceptibility, we have to guard more against the infec- 
tion of new animals than against repetition of abortion in the 
same cows. To protect the new stock against infection^ however, 
it becomes necessary to purge from the infection, all cows which 
still harbor the germ in their generative passages, though they 
do not themselves any longer abort. It becomes also necessary 
to guard against infection throiugh stalls, bulls, etc., from such 
infected, but no longer aborting, cows. 

Upon the following points there can be no dispute: 

1st. The cow which shows symptoms of abortion should at once 
be removed from the others, and her stall, including the gutter 
and drain leading from it, thoroughly disinfected. 

2d. Every cow which has aborted should be instantly removed 
from the stable into a separate building, and her stall, with its 
gutter and drains^ thoroughly disinfected. 

3d. The aborted foetus, with its membranes, should be at once 
removed and burned or boiled, or deeply buried after it has been 
sprinkled with chloride of lime or other active disinfectant. 

4th. The manure from the infected stable should be taken into 
an enclosure to which no cows have access, and freely watered 
with a solution of sulphate of copper. (One ounce in one quart 
of rain water.) 

5th. The cow which has aborted, and those standing on each 
side of her, or the cow threatened with abortion, and those stand- 
ing on each side of her, should have the external generative or- 
gans, the adjacent parts of the thigh and the whole length of the 
tail sponged every morning with the solution of one ounce of 
sulphate of cofiper in one quart of water. 

6th. The cow that has aborted, or is suspected of abortion, and 
which has been isolated from the herd in a special stable, should 
have its stall carefully cleaned^ scraped and watered daily with. 



14 

the sulphate of copper solution. Her manure and urine must 
be carefully disinfected, as provided for above. 

7tb. In case that more than one animal has aborted in a herd 
or stable, it is desirable to sponge the external generative organs, 
hips and tails of the whole herd daily with the sulphate of copper 
solution, and to disinfect the hind part of the stalls, the gutter 
and the drains every morning, as prescribed above. 

Sth. Further to prevent the introduction of the infection into 
a heM, all newly purchased cows should be put at first in a sepa- 
rate quarantine stable, and subjected to daily disinfection of the 
external parts, and the stalls. As each cow comes in at full 
time, and without any indication of disease, she may be trans- 
fenced to the stable occupied by the general herd. 

9th. In purchasing a bull the greatest care must be taken to 
see that he comes from an absolutely sound herd, and that he 
had not been allowed to serve cow^s from a herd where abortion 
exists. It is a safe precaution to wash his sheath with the dis- 
infectant liquid and to inject it freely with the same before be^ 
ginning to use him in the herd. He should be allowed to serve 
no cows from outside the herd, unless it can be shown that they 
are from herds that are absolutely free from abortion. 

By a rigid application of the above measures the extension of 
contagious abortion in a herd can be certainly prevented, and the 
rule being that the majoritj^ do not abort a second time the dis- 
ease can in this way be got rid of. 

It must be borne in mind, however, that in an infected herd 
there will always be a certain number of pregnant animals, in 
which the germ is already lodged deeply in the vagina and even 
in the womb, and these measures cannot prevent the occurrence 
of abortion in their cases. There is also the danger in a certain 
limited number of these, w^hich have a tendency to abort a second 
time, that the germ will continue to live throughout the follow- 
ing year in the interior of the womb, and not only cause another 
abortion in the individual cow, but start the infection anew in 
other members of the herd. 



15 

There is some danger of such survival even in a cow which has 
become herself immune so that she will carry her calf to full 
time and yet infect other susceptible cows which may be ex- 
posed more or less directly to her discharges. It is for such 
cases that medication by the mouth and injections into the 
vagina or womb have been resorted to. 

Among medicines used to check abortion bj acting on the 
general system are viburnum prunifolium and potassium chlor- 
ate, which can hardly be upheld as disinfectants, but act only on 
the nervous system or on the general health. Carbolic acid one 
of the latest fads, is employed on the other hand with the intent 
of checking the propagation of the contagious element. Diluted 
in w^ater so as to be nonirritating it has been injected daily under 
the skin, for a length o<f time and with alleged good results. It 
is noticeable however, that when the good effects have been ap- 
parently most constant the animals have at the same time been 
subjected to very careful and continuous external disinfection, 
which in itself is amply sufficient to account for the favorable 
outcome. When it has been employed apart from such external 
applications, the results have been much less favorable. Thirty- 
seven Danish veterinarins employed it in ninety-tw^o separate 
herds, with results that were apparently good in forty-seven 
cases, doubtful in twenty, and negative in twenty-five. Thirteen 
other veterinaries w^ho have employed it extensively report the 
results as doubtful or negative. It is not surprising that a ma- 
jority of these practitioners abandoned a method which in theory 
must be looked on as unpromising and which j)roved so uncertain 
in actual practice. 

11th. The other resort is a priori more promising consisting 
as it does in the application of a disinfectant, to the infected 
mucus membrane of the generative organs. The tw^o agents 
most in use are carbolic acid and mercuric chloride. 

Carbolic acid which is the less dangerous agent is prepared 
by adding one troy ounce and a half of the acid to a gallon of 
w^ater, together with a troy ounce of carbonate of soda. This is 
injected daily for a week, through a large syringe, or an elastic 



16 

rubber tube introduced into the passage and having a funnel 
inserted in its outer end, Avhich is carried two feet higher than 
the root of the tail. A quart may be employed at each injection 
and it should be used milk warm. 

The mercuric chloride the more poisonous of the two agents, 
is used in a solution of one drachm to the gallon of water, to 
which is added a drachm of hydrochloric acid. This is used 
milk warm in the same way as the carbolic solution. This is 
very corrosive as well as poisonous and must be kept in a wooden 
vessel, safely locked up from man or animals. 

The writer has used such injections in aborting animals and 
herds, and at the same time with the daily disinfection of the ex- 
ternal parts of the generative organs, the stalls, gutters, drains 
and manure, and with perfect success where it could be thor- 
oughly carried out. 

It is subject to the serious objection that it causes active 
straining Avhen the injection is administered, and if this becomes 
extreme, it may create apprehension, that it will precipitate an 
abortion rather than obviate it. This has led Nocard and others 
to abandon the injections and to rely altogether on external dis- 
inf(^ctants. For pregnant animals this is to be commended as 
the disinfectant cannot penetrate and disinfect, an already in- 
fected womb, and is therefore not likely to prevent an abortion 
when the germ has already gained that cavity. In the cow that 
has just aborted on the other hand, the danger of injury from 
this cause is reduced to the minimum and the disinfectant in- 
jection thrown into the depth of the womb itself, offers the only 
hope of a speedy disinfection of that cavity. The external ap- 
plication merely prevents the access of new germs from without, 
while those that are within are left to be destroyed by the un- 
aided action of the lining membrane of the womb. That this 
action is usuall}- slow is illustrated by the fact that the abortion 
germs habitually live for a great length of time in the vagina and 
womb, before producing abortion, and that they often continue 
to live there much longer unless preventive measures are re- 
sorted to. In the animal which has aborted some time before 



17 

and which is still iinimpregnated, injections are equally com- 
mendable. It may not be admissible in this case to introduce 
the liquid into the womb, but even if limited to the vagina, the 
resulting disinfection is highly advantageous in cutting off this 
source of renewed infection for the uterus, and placing the organ 
in a much more favorable position for the destruction of the 
bacilli which it contains. 

CONCLUSION. 

In conclusion it may be stated that this subject still offers an 
extension field for profitable investigation, and that we should 
not rest satisfied with the partial know^ledge already attained, 
but push our inquiries in new directions, when there is a good 
prospect of securing the means of a fuller, more perfect and 
more easily available control of this great source of loss to our 
dairy interests. The form or forms of contagious abortion in our 
home herds should be fully investigated and the conditions of 
the life and propagation of the germs more definitely determined, 
and the same should be secured for other forms w^hich may not as 
yet be indigenous to the United States, but which are likely to 
be introduced through the -medium of importations. Our dairy 
industry is one of the most important of our sources of income, 
and a moderate outlay for an investigation w^hich will render 
that safer and more remunerative, or which will protect it 
against threatened dangers from without, must prove an im- 
portant measure of national economy. 
2 



WALTEK L. WILLIAMS, D.V.S., 

Professor of Principles and Practice of I ^eterinary Sicrge7y 
Obstetrics. Zootechny, and Jurisprudence. 



ARTICLES. 



Physiological Variations. 

Proc. U. S. Vet. Med. Ass'n, 1896, p. 192. 

Artesia of Right Posterior Naris in a Mare. 

Jour. Comp. Med. and V. A., May, 1897. Vol. xviii, p. 274. 

Azoturia and Atrophy of the Great Dorsal Muscles as a Result of Casting. 
Am. Vet. Review, June, 1897. Vol. xxi, p. 157. 

The Spaying of Mares. 

Jour. Comp. Med. and V. A., June, 1897, p. 355. 

Involuntary Twitching of the Head relieved by Trifacial Neurotomy. 
Jour. Comp. Med. and V. A., July, 1897, Vol. xviii, p. 426. 

Traumatic Pericarditis in a Cow. 

Jour. Comp. Med. and V. A., July, 1897. Vol. xviii, p. 451. 

Luxation of the Metacarpo-phalangeal Articulation in a Horse. 

Jour. Comp. Med. and V. A., July, 1897. Vol. xviii, p. 452. 

Three Consecutive Recoveries from Glanders. 

Am. Vet. Rev., July, 1897. Vol. xxi, p. 230. 

Infectious Abortion of Mares. 

Am. Vet, Rev., August, 1897. Vol. xxi, p. 303. 

The Parasitic Ictero-Hematuria of Sheep. 

Am. Vet. Rev., September, 1897. Vol. xxi, p. 377. 

Extreme Luxation of the Patellae of a Foal, Illustrated. 

Am. Vet. Rev., October, 1897. Vol. xxi, p. 444. 

Inhalation Pneumonia. (Joint article, and P, A. FISH.) 

Proc. U. S. Vet. Med, Ass'n, 1897, p, 167, 

Am, Vet. Rev., Dec, 1897. Vol. xxi, p. 609. 

Jour, Comp, Med. and V, A,, Oct,, 1897, Vol, xviii, p. 619, 

Vet, Jour. (Lond. ) Feb., 1898. Vol. xlvi, p. 143. 

The Air Sac Mite of the Fowl, Illustrated, 

Am, Vet, Rev,, April, 1898, Vol. xxii, p. 8. 

Caudal Myectomy vs. Clitoridectomy. 

Am. Vet. Rev., May, 1898, Vol. xxii, p. 91. 
Vet. Jour. (Lond.) July, 1898. Vol. xlvii, p. 19. 

Interesting Cases from the Surgical and Obstetric Clinic, N, Y, State Vet- 
erinary College. 

Am. Vet. Rev., June, 1898. Vol. xxii, p. 178. 



Extracted from the Proceedings of the United States Veterinary Medical Association, 

September, 1896.] 



PHYSIOLOGICAL VARIATIONS. 
By W. L. WILLIAMS, V.S., 

PROFESSOR OF SURGERY AND OBSTETRICS. NEW YORK STATE VETERINARY COLLEGE, 
CORNELL UNIVERSITY. 



In biological study we generally identify form with function, but 
sometimes their relations are vague, at others they wholly elude our 
perception, yet we usually assume the interdependence of anatomy 
and physiology. 

We are not clear as to which is cause and which is effect, although 
as a rule we attribute physiological or pathological phenomena to 
structural differences, but it seems more probable that the reverse 
is true, and that anatomical peculiarities are due to physiological 
variations. We attribute the form of the ruminant to rumination, 
not rumination to the complexity of the stomach ; carnivorous teeth 
to the devouring of flesh, and not flesh-eating to the form of teeth, 
yet, knowing the functions of these organs, we may refer an animal 
to a given order by their form. In animal physiology, whether 
normal or pathological, it is important that in so far as possible 
we comprehend each function in its true light and not erroneously 
ascribe physiological peculiarities to irrelevant details in structure. 

It is a current practice in medicine, not wholly unknown in other 
professions, to attempt to answer all questions propounded with some 
plausible theory, which, if it does not explain, serves at least to cover 
up some very rugged points, and so we attempt frequently to explain 
the occurrence of physiological or pathological phenomena by some 
imaginary or irrelevant anatomical detail. A good example of this 
recklessness in formulating theories is the common explanation 
given of the occurrence of roaring in horses by attributing it, and 
its usual seat on the left side, to the disposition of the left recurrent 
laryngeal nerve ; but when we recall that other domestic animals, 
in none of which roaring occurs, have the same disposition of the 
nerve, it is evident that we must look further for an explanation, 
and conclude that the existence of roaring in horses is dependent 
rather upon some physiological variation than anatomical peculiarity. 
Closely allied in many respects is the peculiar equine malady, which, 



2 W' . L . W I L L I A M S , 

in a paper presented to tliis Assuciaiion in 1894, I termed enzootic 
spasm of Uw laryn.v — a disease attributed by nie at an earlier date to 
the eating of frozen maize, by others to feeding on Indian vetches, 
and by still others to poisoning through the use for drinking of mill- 
tailing waters. None of the causes proposed offer any explanation 
for the limitation of the disease to solipeds and the impunity with 
which other animals may eat frozen maize or Indian vetches or drink 
the tailings from smelters or ore-mills. 

Of greater interest, because of its more general prevalence and 
conseqnent economic importance, is the disease of solipeds known 
a.« ^^ heaves," a malady which has led to many theories and con- 
troversies but to no reliable conclusion as to its nature. 

Putting these three together, they constitute an isolated group of 
diseases confiued to solipeds and almost wholly to horses, mysterious 
in nature and without prototypes in other animals unless we except 
the asthma of man ; yet we find no anatomical reason why solipeds 
should monopolize to the exclusion of other animals the entire group 
of fjinctional respiratory affections. 

Another well-marked peculiarity of the horse which is very lightly 
but ineffectually explained is the rarity of vomition, which it is said 
is due to the peculiar palate or the arrangement of the cardiac orifice 
of the stomach, so that he cannot vomit. We can tie a dog's cesoph- 
agus so he cannot vomit, but if we give him emetin it will still in- 
duce nausea, and in the production of nausea rests the real difference 
between the two animals, for any of us of moderate experience 
knows full well that if a horse be nauseated he can vomit readily. 

I have seen a horse sit on his haunches like a dog and vomit 
until certainly his stomach was well emptied, yet there seemed 
little amiss except the nausea, after the subsidence of which he 
appeared as well as usual. Again, I have been frightened to see 
the free vomition of decomposing food in a severe case of indiges- 
tion, in which the vomit was mixed with considerable quantities of 
blood, yet the vomition had apparently the salutary effect observed 
so often in dog and man. 

We must then search for the rarity of vomition in the horse in 
the peculiar difficulty with which he becomes nauseated. 

Each animal offers specific affections, which are as well marked 
and as closely defined by specific boundaries as those above men- 
tioned, and their existence in or confinement to a given species can- 
not at present be explained except by some })hysiological peculiarity 
of the animal. 



PHYSIOLOGICAL VARIATIONS. 3 

The semiology of disease is frequently very much modified by the 
functional peculiarities of the patient. 

In the ordinary pneumonia of the horse the patient cannot lie 
down comfortably, while in the same disease the cow habitually 
assumes the recumbent posture with ease. Of greater physiological 
interest are the more essential symptoms produced by diseases alike 
essentially in etiology and nature, yet causing the most diverse effects 
upon the patient according to age, species, or other factors. 

Indigestion in the horse produces pain and delirium ; in the foal, 
pain and diarrhoea ; in the cow, coma and paralysis; in the infant 
or puppy, convulsions ; and while we may recognize certain differ- 
ences in food or other causative factors, they do not fully account 
for the great variations of essential symptoms. 

In the realm of transmissible affections we find a still more inter- 
esting example in rabies or hydrophobia, the cardinal symptoms of 
which in nearly all animrls is intense fear, coupled with discordant 
efforts to protect self from imaginary foes, but we find this symp- 
tom strangely perverted in some animals. The sheep may attack 
rather tamely by butting, but its most marked symptom of the 
malady is nymphomania, although normally its sexual desires are 
ephemeral and never so intense in health as is observed in the bitch 
and cat, and strangely, too, the fact that the ewe is pregnant is no 
bar against the nymphomania. 

The rabid pig shows no nymphomania, and, as observed by me, 
no attempt whatever at attack or defense, but rather tries by back- 
ing and whirling to get away from the imaginary foe. 

Individual peculiarities are constantly observed in disease, and 
may prove interesting or confusing. I recall a case of colo-csecal 
impaction in a mare where the ordinary extreme extension of the 
limbs as if to urinate was replaced by the animal standing on its 
hind legs with its forefeet propped up on a nail-tie at the side of 
the stall, about five feet from the floor, thereby accomplishing in a 
measure the ordinary effect as to position in a grotesque manner. 

In the physiological action of drugs and medicinal agents we find 
great variations which we must constantly take into account, and 
not accept the behavior of a given agent in one animal as conclusive 
proof that it will act likewise in all others. Such an assumption 
frequently leads us to conclusions no less dangerous than false. In 
a paper presented to this Association last year' I had occasion to 

1 Therapeutics of Colic. 



4 \V. L. WILLIAMS, 

refer to the variatiou in the action of opium and morphine in the 
horse and roan, being in the former, when given in large doses, a 
violent and dangerous excitant to the spinal cord and respiratory 
apparatus, while in man it generally poisons by producing coma; 
consccpiently if we accept the normal physiological action of the 
drug in man as our guide for its use in the horse, after passing a 
given dose whicii may have a slight anodyne action, we quickly reach 
an excitant effect, which is rapidly and dangerously intensiiied by 
increased doses, leading many veterinarians to destroy the lives of 
their patients in the vain attempt to reproduce the action of this 
drug as seen in man. But opium is by no means the only medicinal 
agent offering perplexing differences in action, which we can only 
attribute to physiological peculiarities in the various animals. This 
is particularly noticeable in our use of cathartics. Magnesium 
sulphate, so prompt and in many respects effectual in man and 
several of our domesticated animals, when uncombined is not only 
ineffectual in cattle, but under certain conditions seems rather to 
retard than encourage intestinal activity, although if combined with 
a liberal amount of sodium chloride it becomes quite efficient. We 
explain this deviation from the normal action of magnesium sulphate 
by saying that the addition of the sodium chloride increases the 
animal's thirst and thereby proves a valuable adjunct to the magne- 
sium ; but this does not explain why the adjunct is essential in cattle 
and uncalled for in man. Similiar variations hold true in the action 
of other purgatives, which, while not so well marked, lead us to 
elect certain members of the entire group for each of the various 
species of domesticated animals and even for the various ages and 
breeds. 

The physiological peculiarities of animals which determine the 
pathogenic power of living organisms offer an interesting field for 
investigation. One phase of this topic was suggested but not con- 
sidered in a paper presented to this Association in 1894 upon the 
'* Influence of Climate and other Environments upon the Character 
and Distribution of Disease," in which it was noted that many dis- 
eases possess well-defined geographical limits depending upon cli- 
matic or other influences. These influences evidently may act either 
subjectively or objectively ; they may weaken or destroy the patho- 
genic organism or increase or decrease tiie resisting power of the 
animal to be attacked, which latter we must attribute to variations 
in the functi(jnal peculiarities due to environment — changes which 
must be constantly taken into account in every department of our 



PHYSIOLOGICAL VARIATIONS. 5 

science. A disease which is a serious scourge iu crowded quarters 
or under certain climatic influences may ])rove utterly insignificant 
under other conditions. 

In the paper above mentioued it was noted that the physiological 
conditions of range horses at high altitudes in our Western States 
rendered glanders among them an almost non-contagious affection, 
with a marked tendency in those affected to recover spontaneously. 
At the same time animals kept in bad stables in the adjacent valleys 
and put to hard work contract glanders readily and severely. 

Since other diseases show equal variations under changed climatic 
conditions, a study of these become essential not only in veterinary 
sanitary science, but also in the daily work of the private veteri- 
narian. 

We fully recognize that animals strengthened or depressed by 
food, labor, or housing possess varying powers of resisting the 
encroachment of disease, and that these same influences enable or 
disable an animal to undergo a given surgical operation. 

In transmissible diseases the powers of species or individuals to 
resist the inroads of the pathogenic organism form one of our most 
intensely interesting studies. It is noticeable that but few of these 
affections have even a moderately wide specific habitat. 

Anthrax, tuberculosis, rabies, and glanders present the widest 
range of possible existence, while most transmissible affections are 
confined to a genus or species. Thus Texas-fever, bovine pleuro- 
pneumonia, equine pleuro-pneumonia, equine distemper, canine dis- 
temper, hog-cholera, chicken-cholera, and a long list of such mala- 
dies has^e closely defined specific limits except possibly under artifi- 
cial conditions. The functional causes which render one species vul- 
nerable, another immune to given diseases, are already producing 
profound results in the domain of medicine, although the fundamental 
facts are not yet discovered. We fully recognize the value of physio- 
logical resistance to disease in the selection of animals for the artifi- 
cial production of immunizing or curative agents. It is greatly to 
be hoped that the present intense activity in biological study will 
yet discover the causes of physiological immunity of one species 
against diseases to which another is highly vulnerable. 

The crowning achievement of modern medicine is the artificial 
production of immunity against a disease to which the individual 
is ordinarily liable. While immunity as a result of the invasion 
of disease in a tangible form has long been recognized, it has been 
only recently that this immunization has been intelligently produced 



6 \V. L. WILLIAMS, 

without the advent of the disease. The prodiietiou of immunity by 
disease has always been regarded as a very grave danger in many 
diseases, few patients passing safely through the ordeal necessary to 
the physiological change, while the immunization without the pres- 
ence of the a(,'tual disease has greatly lessened the danger and also 
has taught us undeniably, what many believed before the recent dis- 
coveries, that many patients acquire immunity against a given dis- 
ease without exhibiting any of the cardinal symptoms of the affec- 
tion, or, we might say, the patient has been invaded by a pathogenic 
oro-anism which has produced tlie physiological changes we call im- 
munity without producing the functional discord which we term 
disease. 

Furthermore, we may consider the possibility of the production 
of ])hysiological variations which may become hereditary, resulting 
in permanent, speciiic immunity, by which all the individuals of a 
species may become invulnerable to a given disease — a proposition 
which, although at first apparently untenable, yet seems quite as 
plausible as the great auatomical changes which we generally admit 
have taken place during a long series of generations. The multi- 
plicity of pathogenic organisms besetting us on every hand would 
render higher animal life impossible but for very general specific im- 
munity. We can realize the importance of the physiological pecu- 
liarities which cause this immunity by observing the seriousness of 
the already mentioned group of affections having a wide specific range 
of habitat, chiefly tuberculosis, anthrax, glanders, and rabies. All are 
much dreaded and constitute the most difficult group of affections 
to control or eradicate, largely because of their ill-defined specific 
limits, although none of tliem is exceedingly highly contagious, and 
each seems to have its climatic limitations. 

The vast number of highly contagious and fatal maladies, such as 
hog-cholera or chicken-cholera, were they not confined to certain 
species by what we conceive to be physiological immunity, would 
inevitably sweep higher animal life out of existence, thus rendering 
immunity against a large proportion of pathogenic organisms in each 
animal a necessary safeguard to the survival of its species. In what 
manner the physiological changes are brought about by which spe- 
cific or hereditary immunity ensues, little is known; but it seems 
not improbable that it is largely the same, but in a more gradual 
manner, as the individual immunity produced by the first attack of 
disease. 

It aj)pears that constant contact with certain pathogenic organisms 



PHYSIOLOGICAL VARIATIONS. 7 

begets gradual ininmuity witliout intervention of that train of phe- 
nomena we designate disease, so that while an animal is kept in 
unsanitary environments which weaken the normal resisting powers 
of the body, it affords, by habit, protection against those forms of 
disease the canses of which are constantly present and acting, so 
that an animal subjected to unsanitary conditions tends to acquire 
more or less immunity against these, but the reduced general vitality 
renders the system all the more vulnerable to new foes, as in case of 
the people in the slums of great cities, whose systems become inured 
to the dangers which are constant and withstand them in an extra- 
ordinary degree, but the advent of new ones, like typhus or cholera, 
causes appalling destruction. 

Reptiles and batrachians revel among miasms and pathogenic 
organisms which would prove deadly to many other forms of animal 
life; and carnivorous and especially scavenger animals wax strong 
upon food teeming with decomposition-bacteria and their products, 
which would prove of serious consequence if ingested by others. 

It is not unreasonable to believe that the physiological modifica- 
tions induced by environment fixes in a degree the ability of various 
animals to undergo successfully certain physical injuries or surgical 
operations, which, possessing certain definite characters and being 
more or less uniform, offer special facilities for comparison. We 
find functional characters so greatly varying that operations which 
can be borne with impunity by one species of animal can be under- 
taken in others only with considerable danger; in one animal aseptic 
precautious are needful and imperative, in another they are wholly 
unnecessary. Take, as an example, operations affecting the body- 
cavity. In man or horse these can only be undertaken under the 
most scrupulous aseptic precautions ; in the common fowl we cut in 
between the ribs without asepsis, spread the ribs apart, remove the 
testicle in sight, then probably break into an air-sac or two, break 
through the mesentery, search for awhile for the other testicle, then 
roll the bird over, cut between the ribs on the other side, secure and 
remove the remaining testicle, and turn the bird loose with a large 
opening passing entirely through the body from side to side, through 
the abdominal cavity, with considerable blood-coagula left without 
removal, and the air-sacs punctured so that essentially the lungs 
have been opened. The patient misses no food, loses no flesh, and 
apparently pays no heed to the ordeal through which he has passed. 
In other words, the chicken possesses immunity against wound-in- 
fections to a high degree. Several domestic animals possess a degree 



8 W. L. WILLIAMS, 

of imnuinity against wound-infection only slightly inferior to the 
fowl. The dog is especially resistant in this respect, so that the 
bitch is habitually spayed in utter disregard of aseptic precautions, 
sanitary surroundings, or surgical neatness, yet successfully and 
safely. Yet some writers advise great nicety in asepsis, anaesthesia, 
etc., in tiiis operation, although their reasons for such careful tech- 
nique do not appear ; but we would not have it thought we counsel 
abandon and recklessness in the matter. We do hold, however, 
that it is our good fortune that complete asepsis is not imperative 
when we consider the difficulty with which it may be applied, and 
there is scant need for insisting upon so much labor to produce it 
for an operation not worth the trouble. Others say it is cruel to 
spay a bitch without first producing anaesthesia, but anaesthesia is 
more dangerous to the life of the bitch than the operation. Still 
another writer insists that the operation at best is cruel, but spaying 
a bitch causes less suffering and loss of flesh than giving birth to a 
single litter of puppies or even to going through a single period of 
oestrum ; and it is consequently wrong to gauge our operations on 
dogs by the results of similar procedures on animals possessing quite 
different physiological properties. 

While we as veterinarians must recognize the importance of asepsis 
in our handling of surgical or accidental wounds, we are not to be 
discouraged nor prevented from carrying out an operation because 
of the impracticability of applying aseptic or antiseptic rules with 
that exactness demanded in human surgery. 

Wishing to try the economic value of spaying range mares, upon 
looking up the literature relating thereto it was found that one of 
my colleagues stipulated that the vagina should be scrupulously dis- 
infected on the day prior to the operation, then again upon the day 
of operation, and that the procedure itself should be carried out 
under the most exacting rules : all blood-clots removed from the 
vagina, the vaginal incision sutured, and every possible precaution 
taken against wound-infection. My subjects, however, were wild 
marcs, which must be lassoed and tied securely head and foot for 
the disinfection, released for a day, and then caught again for rcdis- 
infection and operation. The excitement of catching and the rough 
handling would offset the imperfect disinfection, and, moreover, the 
wild mares were not worth the expense. It was essential that a 
more practical method should be adopted, and consequently they 
were roped and forced into a branding chute, secured in a standing 
position, the feces removed from the rectum by an assistant; about 



PHYSIOLOGICAL VARIATIONS. O 

one quart of a 1 : 5000 or less sublimate solution was thrown into 
the vagina, the incision quickly made, the ovaries taken away with 
the ecraseur, the blood-clots in the vagina left there, the vaginal 
incision left open, and the wild mares released ; and, to my astonish- 
ment, it was found that the animals withstood the operation better 
than yearling colts do castration. 

We also recognize physiological variations in breeds and indi- 
viduals, and find that we must gauge our remedy and dose, must 
undertake or decline an operation, and must be guided in our prog- 
nosis by the functional peculiarities of the patient before us. In 
every department of our profession we need to closely follow the 
physiological peculiarities of our wards and to intelligently base our 
actions upon a practical study of their normal functions, and not to 
rely upon what we term general or classic physiology, which is made 
up of a series of deductions drawn from facts gleaned indiscriminately 
from the whole field of animal life and not always having a general 
application. 



[Reprinted from The Journal of Comparative Medicine and Veterinary Archives, 

May, 1897.] 



ATRESIA OF THE RIGHT POSTERIOR NARIS IN A MARE. 
By W. L. Williams, Y.S., 

PROFESSOR OF SURGERY, NEW YORK STATE VETERINARY COLLEGE, 



The subject, a small brown mare, aged- four years, used for de- 
livery by a retail batcher, had been recently purchased without a 
reliable history as to the date of the advent of respiratory diffi- 
culty, but it was said that she had suffered from an increasing 
dyspuoea for about one year. 

As this is the date at ^vhich the animal would ordinarily be first 
put to work, in all probability the difficulty in breathing was 
merely not noticed until brought out prominently by labor. 

Presented at the free clinic, October 9, 1896, it was observed 
that rapid driving caused severe dyspnoea and roaring, while at 
rest the respiratory sounds w^ere normal, but the ingress and egress 
of air were confined wholly to the left nostril, the right being func- 
tionless. 

Inspection revealed no facial deformity, no definite dulness nor 
want of resonance over any of the facial sinuses, no nasal discharge 
or odor, no cough, and no abnormality upon manual exploration 
of the mouth and pharynx. 

The symptoms observed, in conjunction with the history of a 
gradually developing dyspnoea of a year's duration, led us to believe 
that w^e had to deal with a neoplasm encroaching upon the right 
nasal conduit. 

On the follov/ing day the animal was cast and two exploratory 
openings made — one into the inferior maxillary sinus, near the 
fang of the fourth molar; the other against the median line of the 
face, on a level with the lower margin of orbits. No abnormality 
could be discovered from either, except that the turbinated bones, 
normal in structure, approached more nearly to the septum nasi 
than usual, until an attempt was made to pass a sound from the 
second opening through the posterior naris, which was found 
impossible. 

After a prolonged effort and the use of as great force as seemed 
prudent the sound suddenly passed through into the pharynx, and 



upon its witlidriiwal a small (jiuuitity of air passed out through the 
right nostril, and blood passed from the nostrils into the pharynx, 
leading us to the erroneous conclusion that we had encountered a 
neoplasm and had passed the sound alongside between it and the 
bony walls of the posterior naris. 

We were unable to learn the form, character, size, or attach- 
ments of the obstruction ; concluded that a successful operation was 
impossible, and abandoned further attempts at surgical interference. 

It was noticed that the patient now forced some air through the 
right nostril, and continued to do so ; but its significance was not un- 
derstood, and believing restoration of the animal to usefulness im- 
possible, she was destroyed on November 26th and an autopsy made 

No neoplasm was found, but across the right posterior naris, 
continuous with the nasal mucosa on the outer and the pharyngeal 
mucosa on the inner side, was a thin, hymen-like membrane, stretch- 
ing like a drum-head between the palatine, ethmoid, and vomer 
bones, completely occluding the opening except for a small rent in 
its centre, oval in form, three-fourths by one-half inch in diam- 
eter, the result of the accidental opening made with the sound at 
the time of our exploratory operation. The occluded right poste- 
rior naris measured transversely from vomer to palatine bone seven- 
eighths of an inch, while the left measured one and one-half inches. 
The tissues were all healthy and showed no evidence of pre-exjsting 
disease of any kind, indicating clearly that the abnormality was 
congenital. 

The cause of the deformity must be referred to early embryonic 
life after the endoderm of the ovum had, by infolding, produced 
the primitive intestine, ending anteriorly in the pharynx, in front 
of which the olfactory pits develop, but are for a time separated 
from the pharynx by a thin septum, which, becoming obliterated, 
brings about the opening known as the posterior naris. 

In this individual the septum had become obliterated on the left 
side, while on the right the development had become arrested, the 
septum, as a result, persisting. 

The bibliography relating to this form of arrested development 
is exceedingly limited. 

Through the aid of my colleague. Dr. Law, I have been enabled 
to find the record of one similar case by Prof. Gamgee {Our Domestic 
Animals in Health and Disease, p. 622), who relates an instance 
observed by Hering in 1842, in wdiich a filly, two and one-half 
years old, was presented to Prof. Hering for advice regarding a 
severe dyspnoea and roaring, which had been observed for a year. 



No evidence of tumor or other neoplasm or pathological condition 
could be found to explain the roaring, except that it was found 
that the right nostril was impervious to air and that a flexible 
sound could not be passed into the pharynx through the right 
nasal passage. Failing, like me, to make a diagnosis, the filly was 
destroyed, and, as in our own case, the autopsy revealed a thin 
septum stretched across and completely closing the right posterior 
uaris, and, in full accord with our views in this case, he considered 
the cause an arrest in development in the early embryonic stage, 
by which the septum, at that time normal, failed to undergo that 
obliteration which should naturally follow. 

Perhaps the deformity is more common than records would indi- 
cate, and it would seem not unlikely that in some cases both septa 
persist, leading, especially in foals, to early death, owing to the 
difficulty it has in breathing through the mouth ; hence it would 
seem well for veterinarians to have in mind the possibility of the 
occurrence of this peculiar form of arrested development, its diag- 
nosis and treatment. 

The diagnosis offers no great difficulty to the veterinarian cog- 
nizant of the occurrence of such an abnormality. We observe :. 

a. Dyspnoea and roaring. 

b. Imperviousness of the affected passage to air. 

c. The absence of any neoplasm or tumors in the nasal passages 
or sinuses, or of dental or other diseases leading to suppuration or 
other changes capable of interfering with respiration. 

d. The nasal passage and nostril free ; though, perhaps owing to 
non-use, the turbinate bones are nearer to the nasal septum than 
ordinarily observed. 

e. The posterior naris closed, as shown by the impossibility of 
passing a sound into the pharynx, but permitting the sound to pass 
over the naris until the ethmoid bone is reached. 

/. The Polansky-Schindelka rhino-laryngoscope would enable 
one to observe the actual condition of the deformed part. 

The Gunther Eustachian catheter should prove an excellent 
sounding instrument, or in its absence an effective sound of similar 
form could be improvised — that is, a rod about one-fourth of an 
inch in diameter, with a slight curve anteriorly, commencing about 
two inches from the anterior end. With this sound measure the 
distance from the superior angle of the nostril to the lachrymal 
angle of the orbit, which will about equal the distance from the 
inner border of the nostril to the centre of the posterior naris. 

Passing the sound along the floor of the nasal chamber, it will 



be found that when it reaches the point indicated by the measure- 
ment, instead of passing downward into the pharynx, it glides 
upward for a distance of two or three inches and stops against the 
ethmoid bone. A common Hexible horse-catheter would answer 
the purpose well, but perhaps not so well as the metallic sound. 

The treatment is exceedingly simple, and consists merely in push- 
ing the curved end of the metallic sound through the membranous 
partition, and then enlarging the opening, or an opening may be 
made alongside of the septum nasi, just below the frontal sinuses, 
and an ordinary pair of curved forceps of sufficient length passed 
downward between the septum or vomer, striking the persistent 
membrane almost at right angles and rendering its rupture and 
laceration to any degree desired readily accomplished. The removal 
of the lacerated portions would be quite unnecessary. 



[Reprinted from the American N'liTERiNAUY Rkview, |iine, 1S97.] 



AZOTURIA, WITH STRAIN AND ATROPHY OF THE 
GREAT DORSAL MUSCLES IN A MARE. 

By W. i.. Williams, \ . S., Troi-. Slrgkry and Ojj.stkirics, New York State 

Veterinary College. 



It is not unusual to meet with contusions, strains and frac- 
tures as a result of casting horses for operations, and at times 
we have had occasion to observe tympanitic colic after tedious, 
cramped confinement, but we have neither observed nor found 
recorded, among- these accidents, the disease we know as azoturia 
or hsemoglobinuria. 

The subject was a common-bred mare, aged eight years, used 
for light farm work and well kept by a very gentle owner. She 
was worked regularly during the summer, but quite irregularly 
during the winter. 

For three years she had suffered from mild double navicular 
disease, wdiich became more continuous and pronounced about 
September, 1896, on which account she was presented at the 
college clinic on Feb. 16, this year, for operation. 

On the 15th, the patient was led about nine miles and on 
the 1 6th completed her joiu'ney to the college, a further distance 
of six miles, and w^as placed in the college hospital at 2 p. :m. 
She was in robust health and high condition, without excessive 
fatness, and having travelled the entire distance at a walk to the 
halter, she arrived wholly without fatigue. On the evening of 
the i6th and morning of the 17th, she was fed sparingly on 
wheat bran and hay, after which she w^as led a short distance 
to a smith for shoeing, was allowed no food at noon, and was 
cast for neurotomy at 2 p. m. of the same day. She was cast 
with ordinary sidelines and surcingle, all four feet being securely 
fastened to the surcingle rings, well up on the sides of the chest, 
the fore feet being alternately released for operating. 



W. L. WILLIAMS. 



Low neurotomy was performed on l:)oth forefeet by a student 
who had not previously attempted the operation, the work being 
as promptly and skillfully performed as could be expected. 
The patient struj^gled violent!}- and persistently throughout 
and upon her release got up without assistance or unusual effort 
and walked to her stall, apparently weak and stiff from her con- 
finement, but without suggestion of grave injury. At lo p. m. 
she was down but apparently comfortable and was left for the 
night without suspicion of anything miusual. 

On the morning of the i8th, it required the aid of two men 
to assist her to her feet. She was then with difficulty walked 
to an adjacent stall and placed in slings. Examination showed 
the two ileo-spinali muscles, as well as the gluteals, much 
swollen, hard and tense, the left side being most severely affected. 
The urine was abundant and of a dark chocolote color charac- 
teristic of azoturia. 

As is usual in severe or moderate cases of azoturia, the slings 
could not be borne, and the patient was lowered to the floor and 
well bedded. Becoming uneasy again after some three hours, 
she was once more lifted to her feet and placed in slings, and 
was then found able to remain in them, bearing her chief weight 
on the feet. She was accordinolv left in the slimes until the 
morning of the 19th, when she had so far recovered from the 
attack that the slings were discontinued and the patient got up 
and down at will. She ate fairh- well and drank a moderate 
quantity of water. The tumefaction of the muscles appeared to 
decrease for a time without medication, but soon began to 
increase. 

On Feb. 2 2(1 the great dorsal muscles were enormously 
swollen, hard, tender, hot, standing up above the spinal column, 
the course of which was marked by a furrow, the affected muscles 
standing out clearly from neighboring structures, thus marking 
as clearly and with as great detail the exact area of the dorsalis 
muscles on each side from withers to the loins as could be done 
by a dissection, the tumefaction extending backward and in- 
cluding to some extent the gluteal muscles also, and to a lesser 



AZOTURIA. 



degree the posterior muscles of the thigh (setni-ineiiibranosis and 
senii-teiidonosis), reiideriiig- the patient quite stiff in her move- 
ments and causing her temperature to rise to a maximum of 
103.4° F. 

On the 23d there was little change in condition except some 
oedematous swelling about the sternum and in the limbs, the 
oedematous condition involving the operative wounds, causing 
the bandage to be saturated with serosity, but not otherwise 
affecting them unfavorably. 

Up to this date in conformity with my usual practice, no 
medication had been applied ; but to relieve the complications 
present, diuretics were ordered internally and an anodyne lini- 
ment to the affected muscles. 

On the 24th there was a general improvement, the muscles 
were less hard, the swelling decreasing and all seemed so favor- 
able that the medication was relaxed, and on the following day, 
the improvement continuing, it was discontinued and out-door 
exercise permitted for a short time. 

On the 26th, while the general condition of the patient was 
■quite satisfactory, it was seen that the great dorsal muscles were 
commencing to waste rapidly, and having seen two previous 
cases of severe strain of these, due to casting with side- 
lines, both of which, without the coincidence of azoturia, 
resulted in extreme atrophy, it was at once concluded that 
in this patient, too, the atrophy would prove rapid and complete. 

On the 27th the atrophy continued with great rapidity and 
on the following day it was seen that the left gluteals were in- 
volved also to a moderate degree. 

On March ist, the atrophy of the great dorsals was complete, 
giving the appearance of the subcutaneous excision of the entire 
muscles from withers to loins, leaving a deep, wide furrow on 
either side of the spinal column, the dorsal spines of which 
stood up sharply. 

The general improvement was rapid, so that on March 3d, 
she was discharged convalescent, the operative wounds entirely 
healed without scar, the appetite and general health good and 



VV. L. \VJI,l,IAMS. 



without apparent weakness from the extreme mnscnlar atrophy, 
and travelled home, a distance of fifteen miles, withont dif- 
ficnlty. 

While this case points clearly to the possibility of azotnria 
as a castincr accident, it sni^g^ests perhaps with eqnal force the 
possible coincident prodnction of both a strain and azotnria of 
the same mnscles, tendinis to confnsion in diagnosis and treat- 
ment. We have no differential symptoms of a local character 
between the two, althongh the one is admittedly a local alTection, 
the other a constitntional malady, the exact character of which 
is an unsolved pr()l)leni. In fact, the only grounds for the 
opinion that the two coexisted in this case are that we had pres- 
ent the pathognomonic constitntional symptoms of azotnria, 
with the history of violent struggles of the animal under con- 
ditions which had previously in our experience produced severe 
strain of the great dorsal muscles without azotnria, the eventual 
results of which were parallel in all cases. 

The tumefaction of the great dorsal muscles and their later 
severe atrophy belong quite as much to the one as to the other 
of the two affections. 

It has been already noted that immediately prior to casting 
the ])atient for the operation she had been sparingly fed and had 
had very slight exercise, each of which tended to ob\iate azo- 
tnria, and would generally have sufliced, and left us in a some- 
what difficult position to explain the. occurrence of the disease. 
Later we discoxered that for a period of 20 hours prior to cast- 
ing she had been deprived of water, an element not generally 
reckoned with in the etiology of azotnria, although we have 
ventured to suggest a parallel line of thought in a prior article 
in the Ri-:vii-:w. '' Therein and elsewhere we have held that 
azotnria is due to certain definite conditions having for their 
antecedents well determined historical data followiu"- each other 
in an unxarying sequence. 

n. A sound animal with exalted nutritive powers not drawn 
upon by disease, pregnancy, rapid growth or senile wasting. 

*•« Pathology of A/oturia,' cii.. Am, \Kr. Ri\ . \ Ol. \l\., j). 172 



AZOTURIA. 



b An a1)undant iiitrof^cnous diet without overfeeding- to tlie 
extent of impairing digestion, al)sorption or nutrition. 

c A period of labor which instead of producing poverty or 
emaciation shall l)ring about a \igorous and robust state of the 
entire body, especially of the nutritive and muscular systems. 

d A /;;7V/ cessation from labor with more or less completely 
enforced rest extending over a period of one to ten or possibly 
rarely more days. 

c An abrupt termination of the brief period of enforced idle- 
ness by labor or other severe exertion, during the first one, two 
or rarel}' more hours of which the susceptibility to the malady 
is manifest, after which the equilibrium of the system is restored 
and the possibility^ of producing azoturia ceases. 

In studying the effects upon the physiological state of the 
animal induced by the environments in the sequence related we 
find in : 

a A system prepared for intense nutritive activity, reaching 
beyond the general requirements of the body. 

b A diet fitted to produce a high state of nutrition, especially 
a highl}^ nitrogenous blood supply, abundant in quantit}^ and 
quality. 

c The period of labor intensifies, per necessity, the nutritive 
activity which is met by the abundant food supply, increasing 
the amount of the red blood cells and other nitrogenous constitu- 
ents of the blood, muscles and other tissues without augmenting 
in a like degree the water of the blood and other nutritive fluids ; 
a state in the highest sense physiological and capable of indefi- 
nite maintenance. 

d The nutritive functions stimulated by the preceding con- 
ditions attain a high degree of perfection and acquire what we 
may term a momentum capable of continuation during a sJiort 
but not long period of rest with the usual rations, resulting in 
the accumulation in the blood of an unnecessary amount of nu- 
tritive material, rendering that fluid still richer in solids and 
comparatively poorer in water, producing a state which w^e ma}- 
term qualitative plethora, and which, though perhaps perfectly 



6 W. L. WILLIAMS. 



physiological, can onh' be temporarily maintained, but dnrino- 
which period a comparatively slight disturbance of the eqni- 
librinm may bring abont results of a grave pathological 
character. 

c Finally the period of sudden exertion causes through the 
arousing of sweat and other secretions a rapid withdrawal of 
water from the blood, while at the same time solid products of 
tissue waste are prompth- thrown into its current, the two fac- 
tors combined serving to render it so far sub-normal in its rela- 
tive amount of water that the resultant density makes it impos- 
sible for the blood current to pass uormally through the capil- 
laries, leading rapidly to blood stasis, extravasation, necrosis 
of the blood, breaking down of the red blood cells, their resorp- 
tion and eventually excretion by the kidneys — haemoglo- 
l)inuria. 

It has been experimentally shown that a muscle at work re- 
quires about 75 per cent, more blood than the same organ at rest, 
and we constantly observe that locomotory uiuscular contractions 
offer the greatest ph)'siological resistance to the blood current, in- 
creasing the number and force of the heart's beats. We should 
then expect to and do find that the blood stasis occurs in the 
capillaries of the great muscles of locomotion, with engorge- 
ment of arteries and capillaries, extravasation of blood into the 
muscular tissue, with tumefaction, pain and eventually paralysis 
of the part, followed in many instances by atrophy of the affected 
muscles. 

If this line of reasoning be correct, we would anticipate the 
greatest changes in those muscles most violently exercised, hence 
in azoturia produced by locomotion we should expect the disease 
to exert its chief force upon the gluteals and the ilio-patellar 
group of muscles, while in a casting accident like that related 
the latter group would wholly escape, while the great dorsal 
muscles would prove the salient point of attack, the gluteals and 
posterior femuro-tibial group participating. 

In the typical case of azoturia one of the most evident symp- 
toms is the knuckling over of the posterior metatarso-phalangeal 



AZOTURIA. 



articulations, due chiefly if not wholly to the grave lesions in the 
ilio-patellar muscles, but in the case related, the affection of 
these parts being- wanting, this symptom too was absent. 
This case affords special support to our view of the pathology 
of the disease, since although the patient had been somewhat 
restricted in diet and very gently exercised, which would under 
ordinary conditions have prevented the disease, yet these were 
more than counterbalanced by the extreme water starvation 
which should, if our contention be true, be even more effectual 
in the production of the disease than the slight and brief decrease 
in the amount of food and the very deficient exercise imme- 
diately prior to the casting in its prevention. 

These circumstances lead us to believe that the causino; of 
animals in a state bordering on azoturia to drink freely of water 
just prior to their first labor after a period of rest would tend to 
prevent in many cases the advent of the disease, and emphasizes 
the importance of relying in our treatment of azoturia, as we 
have long done, chiefly upon inducing the animal to consume as 
much water as is possible, and lends force to the belief which 
we have for some years held, but not tested, that the most efficient 
and rational treatment for the disease in its initial stages consists 
of the intra-venous injection of water or a >^ or i per cent, solu- 
tion of sodium chloride. 



[Eeprinted from The Journal of Comparative Medicine and Veterinary Archives, 

June, 1897.1 



THE SPAYIXG OF iMARES. 

By W. L. Williams, V.S., 

PROFESSOR OF SURGERY AJJD OBSTETRICS, NEW YORK STATE VETERINARY CtJLLEGE. 



The emasculation of domesticated animals, destroying their sexual 
power and instinct, has been freely practised for centuries, the 
reasons therefor varying with different species of animals, in dif- 
ferent countries, and under diversified conditions. Most of these 
operations are so common that in many cases they are performed 
chiefly by stockowners, while others are left almost if not wholly to 
skilled veterinarians. 

The spaying of mares has long been practised in Continental 
Europe, but there appears to be little modern literature upon the 
subject available to the American veterinarian. The earlier method 
of operating, which is now very rarely practised, consisted in 
making an incision in the flank of sufficient size to admit the oper- 
ator's hand, through which the ovaries were removed. Later 
Charlier introduced the method of spaying the larger animals 
through the vagina, greatly decreasing the extent of the surgical 
wound, which, being protected by the vulvo-vaginal canal, rendered 
external influences less potent ; and, added to this the more recent 
introduction of antiseptic and aseptic surgery, the spaying of 
mares has been included in the list of operations which may be 
undertaken by the veterinarian with every confidence in a success- 
ful issue. 

In spite of the great advances in recent years in abdominal sur- 
gery, the spaying of mares has in this country been surrounded by 
an unwarranted fear, of such a degree that but few veterinarians 
attempt it, apparently believing the operation one of special diffi- 
culty and danger. As a consequence we have but few veterinarians 
that have spayed any considerable number of mares consecutively 
or in a manner which would serve as even a moderate test of the 
danger to the animal, or even give the surgeon the desired amount 
of experimental knowledge of the operation. 

During my official connection as veterinarian with the Montana 
Agricultural Experiment Station a favorable opportunity occurred 



2 WILLIAMS: THE SPAYING OF MARES. 

in the summer of 1896 for testing the effect of the operation on a 
larger scale than usual, and the experiment was consequently under- 
taken. Aside from the test as to the danger to the animal, and 
possible additional data as to the proper details of the operation, it 
was hoped to secure additional knowledge as to the economic value 
of the procedure as related to the rearing and handling of horses. 
Among the benefits hoped for were : First, increased docility of the 
animal ; second, the prevention of the oestrum with the attendant 
nervousness, weakness, and repulsiveness ; third, a safe mode of 
control in breeding. 

As a general rule, it may be stated that emasculation of an animal 
increases its docility. This is more markedly true of the female 
than of the male. Sexual appetite being practically constant in the 
male, castration does not uniformly obliterate it, especially if the 
animal has not been emasculated until of adult age or near it ; 
while in the female, with periodical sexual desire only, the oblitera- 
tion of these periods of oestrum almost invariably destroys sexual 
instinct and renders the subject in the fullest sense neuter. 

This end gained, we have secured the second class of benefits by 
doing away with the repulsive features of oestrum, avoiding at the 
same time the accompanying nervousness, irritability, and more or 
less incapacity for work. 

The third incentive for the operation — that of the control or pre- 
vention of breeding — has a special application in Montana and 
other Rocky Mountain States, in that spaying is practically the 
only available method which can be employed to prevent unguarded 
mares from becoming pregnant not so much by valuable sires as by 
a low grade of mongrel horses, the progeny of which can but prove 
worthless. While Montana and perhaps most other Western States 
have laws against stallions running at large, they are quite inopera- 
tive, the ranges being constantly infested with mongrel stallions of 
the lowest type, so that mares are liable to impregnation at any 
time — this fact constituting one of the important causes of very 
marked degeneration of range-horses during the past few years. 
Moreover, there is a vast surplus of these semi- wild mongrel horses 
far beyond the demands of commerce, unsalable, and a serious 
nuisance to the ranges by consuming food which might otherwise be 
used by animals of distinct value. The operation would, then, if 
generally applied, soon reduce this class of horse to the legitimate 
number demanded by our commerce. Besides, it seems that in all 
probability the mare-gelding will prove more desirable than the 
gelding, the mares being generally of finer finish, are free from the 



WILLIAMS: THE SPAYING OF MARES. 3 

repulsive and annoying accumulations of filtli in the sheath of the 
penis of the gelding, and are cleaner in the stall, owing to the direc- 
tion in which the urine is voided — the gelding unavoidably soiling 
his bedding, while the mare need not do so. 

The instruments used in the operation consisted of a Reed in- 
jecting pump, vaginal dilator, like that used for spaying cows ; a 
twenty-two inch Chassaignac ecraseur with guarded ratchets, which 
could be worked within the vagina, and a concealed knife. The 
mares were in two lots, which we shall designate numerically. Lot 
No. 1 consisted of sixteen mares, of which one was a very weak, 
thin, half-starved mongrel three-year-old filly, procured but a day or 
two before operation, and fifteen grade French draught-mares, four to 
six years old, four of which were broken to saddle or harness, while 
eleven were range-mares, handled slightly as weanlings, since which 
time they had ranged unhandled and unguarded among the moun- 
tains. Except the three-year-old all were in prime condition, and 
presumably not pregnant. None of them were known to be vicious 
except one of the broken mares, which was at times balky, probably 
during the oestral periods. None of the animals were at the time 
receiving grain, and only the five broken mares had at any time 
been fed on grain, but had lived exclusively on the range, except as 
weanlings, they had had an allowance of hay. 

The five broken mares were taken from the range on the evening 
of June 2 4, 1896, and placed in a bare corral with running water, 
where they could drink at will ; and the eleven unbroken animals 
were placed in the same corral the following morning after a sharp 
drive of ten miles from their usual feeding-grounds. The five 
broken mares with five unbroken were operated upon on the evening 
of June 25th, and the remaining six on the morning of the 26th. 
The mares were led into a chute used for branding cattle, the un- 
broken ones having been caught with the lasso. They were secured 
by means of a halter to a post in front of the chute; bars were 
placed beneath the chest and abdomen and the tail drawn directly 
upward and made fast to a cross-beam, thus preventing the animal 
from lying down. The hind feet were secured by means of ropes 
to posts in front of and behind the animal, so that it could neither 
kick nor extend the feet forward in an attempt to lie down, while the 
possibility of rearing was prevented by tying a rope across the back. 
Two or three quarts of tepid w^ater were then thrown into the rec- 
tum and the feces removed by an assistant ; the vulva and perineum 
were washed and the vagina filled with a 1 : 5000 solution of corro- 



4 WILLIAMS: THE SPAYIXG OF MARES. 

sive sublimate : the hands and arms Avashed in the same, and the 
instruments disinfected. 

The vaginal tensor was then introduced with the hand, the pro- 
longation fixed in the mouth of the uterus, the walls of the vagina 
rendered tense, the concealed knife carried into the vagina, opened, 
and an incision about one incli lono- made at the end of the vaojina 
just above the moutli of the uterus, after which the knife was re- 
moved. The hand being again brought into the vagina, one or two 
fingers were pushed through the incision, followed by the other fin- 
gers of the hand in cone shape, the w^alls readily giving way and the 
entire hand pushed into the abdominal cavity. The ecraseur was 
then introduced, guarded by the hand. By following the uterus, 
lying immediately beneath the incision, the cornua were soon reached, 
leadino: from it at almost riofht anMes, soon endino:, to be continued 
by the ligament of attachment, in which the ovary was readily and 
unmistakably found at a distance of two or four inches from the 
blunt end of the cornua. The chain of the ecraseur was then placed 
over the ovary, and, holding the instrument and ovary securely with 
one hand, the instrument w^as tightened with the other, the ovary 
quickly crushed off, and carried out along with the ecraseur. The 
crushing off of the ovary was practically the only step in which there 
was evidence of any considerable degree of pain, and this w^as not 
nearly so severe, judging by the struggles of the animal, as is seen in 
the castration of horses. The second ovary was removed in the same 
manner. Very little bleeding followed the operation. The animals 
were released w^ithout further procedure, and all confined in a meadow 
convenient for observation. 

They were inspected twice daily on June 26th, 27th, 28th, and 
29th, as closely as practicable with wild mares. There was some 
slight straining shown by most of the mares immediately after their 
release, and nearly all were noted lying down quietly. Kone of 
them at any time, so far as observed, showed any signs of severe 
pain, not nearly so severe as is commonly seen after the castration 
of stallions. The three-year-old mare, which as before stated, was 
in poor condition, in fact not fit to undergo an operation, seemed 
stiff and dull, but continued to graze daily. No discharge from the 
vagina was observed and no symptoms appeared to create alarm, 
and by the 29th she seemed somewhat improved. She was the first 
animal operated upon in the number, and my first operation on a 
mare, and in addition to her unfit condition, the emptying of her 
rectum was neglected, presuming that without grain the feces would 
be soft and pultaceous, but instead the rectum proved quite full of 



WILLIAMS: THE SPAYING OF MARES. 5 

rather firm fecal matter, and in cutting upward toward it, and the 
vagina of the mare being very much thinner than that of the cow, 
the cut was made too deep and almost penetrated the rectum, a 
complication which probably did much to interfere with her re- 
<30very. Of the other mares none appeared to suffer noticeably, 
except one animal lay down much of the time, but when approached 
would jump to her feet, trot quickly away and commence to graze. 
Two or three others showed slight stiffness for twenty- four to forty- 
■eight hours, but not sufficient to lead the ordinary observer to note 
anything amiss. When approached they all trotted briskly away, 
all grazed regularly, and apparently did not emaciate or lose weight. 

In operating it was found that one mare was about seven months 
pregnant, and it was expected that she would abort, but she seemed 
to still be carrying her foal safely at the date of our last observation, 
and continued as well as the others, but later she lost her foal, 
whether by abortion or otherwise, is not known. 

Lot No. 2 consisted of six farm-bred mares, aged from two to ten 
years, all broken, and at the time of operation were not being fed 
on grain; they were taken directly from the pasture for the operation, 
which was conducted the same as in Lot 1, on the 12th of August, 
1896. 

One of this lot, an aged mare with foal at her side, was apparently 
unwell for some weeks, while the others showed only slight effects 
of the operation for three or four days, and on September Sth, 
twenty-seven days after operating, the owner reported all completely 
recovered. The owner of Lot 1 reported all well on August 3d. 

Of the twenty-two mares in the two lots, but twenty were suc- 
oessfully spayed, errors in two cases having necessitated the aban- 
donment of the operation at an early stage. Both were fillies, one 
two, the other four years old. In these cases the incision through 
the vaginal walls was made too far posteriorly, behind the perito- 
neum, and instead of entering the abdomen led into the rectum. 
As the peritoneal sac remained intact, no serious harm came from 
the error, except that the operation was of necessity abandoned. 
The causes of the error were at least two, the vagina of the mare 
being very much thinner than that of the cow, to which the writer 
was accustomed ; the incision was carried too far before danger was 
anticipated; but of greater importance was the essential difference in 
the relations between the vagina and rectum in the mare and cow. 
These have not, we believe, been distinctly pointed out, though 
probably other operators have noted the difference. The peritoneal 
covering on the superior surface of the vagina is not so extensive in 



6 WILLIAMS: THE SPAYING OP MARES. 

tlie m:ire as in the cow, the rectum and vagina being in immediate 
contact until near the uterus, thus leaving but a very contracted 
field for operating, especially in fillies which have not bred. More- 
over, it has been noted by others that manual exploration of the 
vagina of the mare causes it to dilate by becoming " erected," in 
which case it appears that the free part of the vagina assumes a 
position at right angles to the rectum. If, then, we follow the 
directions generally given, and make an incision in the vaginal walls 
two inches 'posteriorly to the os, we cut not into the peritoneal cavity, 
but into the rectum. Our error indicates clearly that the proper 
place for the incision is above and immediately against the os uteri, 
and that this is especially necessary in young fillies, in which the 
available field for operating is very contracted, yet ample, if these 
directions be followed. 

Some writers direct that the vaginal incision should be complete,, 
the entire thickness of the vaginal wall being cut through, and state 
that tearing through the peritoneal layer with the fingers should in 
no case be attempted, even though the knife need be introduced 
several times, declarinoj that tearinor throuojh this membrane is ex- 
ceedingly liable to induce grave suppuration between the walls of 
the vagina and rectum. In a large proportion of the twenty cases 
above noted we cut only through the mucous and muscular coats, 
and completed the opening by tearing through the peritoneum with 
the fingers, yet, so far as we know, had no untoward results there- 
from. It seems far more likely that the abscesses related by others 
were due rather to the same error we have recorded above, that is 
cutting either behind the peritoneum or just at its passage from the 
rectum to the vagina. Evidently such an error would tend to that 
result. AVe found it much easier to rupture the peritoneal coat of 
the mare with the fingers than it is in the cow. 

The diflSculty which some record, of a partial paralysis of the 
rectum after the operation, leading to retention of the feces and 
necessitating enemata, was not observed except in a minor degree 
with the two fillies in which our errors were made and the rectum 
wounded. 

On the whole, our preparations were in some respects quite im- 
perfect, especially the opportunities for careful asepsis. True, the 
animals were in the main very vigorous and in a climate not so 
prone to induce septic infection as many other regions ; but, on the 
other hand, we feel that the disadvantaojes in our arranfijements 
quite fully offset these. 

We were forced to conclude from our experiment that the spaying 



WILLIAMS: THE SPAYING OF MARES. 7 

of mares is neither difficult nor dangerous, and with some experience 
in castrating stallions under similar conditions we consider the 
spaying of mares the safer operation of the two. In each we open 
the abdominal cavity, in the stallion almost directly through the 
inguinal ring, in the mare quite indirectly through the long vagina. 

With this experience before us, we have not hesitated in our free 
•clinics at the New York State Veterinary College to spay mares as 
occasion requires. We recently had occasion to spay a vicious 
mare, dangerous to her driver on account of violent kicking, espe- 
oially when in oestrum. Presented at the free clinic for operation, 
after a morning^s work on a heavy ice wagon, without food, she 
was secured by placing her in an ordinary sling, her tail being 
secured upward to the sling's pulley, the hind feet secured forward 
and backward to rings placed in the walls, and the operation carried 
out under good aseptic precautions, without incident, except that the 
vulvo-vaginal walls contracted so forcibly about my arms as to 
render the operation difficult and cause my arms to ache painfully 
for seven or eight hours, although the operation was of but fifteen or 
twenty minutes' duration. The powerful contractions of the vulva 
constituted good evidence of an exalted perverted sexual excitability 
evidently closely related to the viciousness of the patient. The 
animal was immediately led home, a distance of one mile, fed 
moderately and exercised gently daily. The owner reported that 
her appetite was constantly good, she showed no stiffness or disin- 
clination to move, or other signs of suifering from the effects of the 
operation, and after a period of ten days returned to her accustomed 
work, where she has since continued more docile and in better flesh 
than prior to emasculation. 

It seems to us, therefore, that the spaying of mares is an opera- 
tion quite warranted in general veterinary practice, less dangerous 
and painful than the castration of horses, and far less difficult than 
many of our more common operations. A more general introduction 
of the practice would greatly increase the value of many mares, espe- 
cially those which are vicious, nervous, or repulsive during oestrum. 
Many of these are now bred in order to render them docile, a prac- 
tice which is most unfortunate, as such mares are not at all suitable 
for breeding-purposes, tending strongly to reproduce their vicious 
characters in their progeny. In addition to the suggestions natur- 
ally emanating from our experience as here recorded, we may note 
that the method we have casually named, of securing mares for 
this operation by means of the ordinary horse-sling, is a most 
effectual and convenient one. With the tail secured upward to the 



8 WILLIAMS: THE SPAYING OF MARES. 

sling-pulley, it is not only out of the way, but is of great value m 
preventing the animal from sitting down in the sling, while with 
the hind feet secure both backward and forward the mare can neither 
kick nor extend the members forward under the belly, but with tail 
and hind feet secure, and with the aid of the sling, the mare is- 
readily kept in a posture favorable for operating. 



INVOLUNTARY TWITCHING OF THE HEAD 
RELIEVED BY TRIFACIAL NEUROTOMY 



By W. L. WII.I.IAMS. 

From Journal of Comparative Medicine aiid Veterinary Archives. 
Jnly, iSgj. Pp. 426-428. 



We occasionally meet with a peculiar disease, habit, or vice in the 
horse which apparently no one has attempted to describe, though doubt- 
less observed by almost every veterinarian of experience, the chief 
symptoms of which are involuntary shaking or twitching of the head 
and rubbing of nose and lips against convenient objects. 

In our personal experience the abnormality has been chiefly noted 
in young horses of marked vigor of constitution, highly fed, and well 
kept, with but moderate or very light work. It develops gradually and 
has attained well-fixed characters before the owner has noticed what 
seems to him an hallucination or vice. The animal more or less 
frequently gives the head a sudden jerk or shake, as though tormented 
by insects, though no cause for the movement is discernible. The owner 
or driver will attribute the difficulty to an irritation of the bit, something 
about the nose or the ears, but a close study indicates that the move- 
ments are not subject to the control of the animal. 

The symptoms are in evidence chiefly in winter in mild cases. They 
disappear with the advent of warm weather, to reappear upon the 
return of winter, while in severe cases the symptoms are much amelio- 
rated during the warmer months. The symptoms are aggravated when 
the animal is ridden or driven, but continue in the stall. As the head is 
twitched there is generally considerable motion of the muzzle, the upper 
lip being moved as though irritated, and if a convenient obstacle is near 
the lip is rubbed in a hurried and quite intense way, as though to 
dislodge an insect. 

A close inspection fails to reveal any anatomical lesion to explain 
the symptoms. Owners have prevailed upon us to clip the hairs from 
within the concha, under the belief that possibly these irritated the 
external ear ; other owners have applied anodynes to the part. We have 



examined the teeth in detail, hopinsjj there to discover the cause, and 
smoothed these ; but the myster}- of the abnormality, its cause and 
nature, remained unsolved, and no guesses served to cure or alleviate the 
difficulty. 

During the college year of i896-'97 three cases of this kind were 
presented at our free clinics, two of which were turned away as mysteries 
after one of them had had his teeth carefully examined and smoothed 
with the rasp. 

The third case presented was a well-bred, vigorous young gelding of 
fine style and action, but rendered comparatively worthless by the con- 
stant twitching of his head whether in harness or stall, accompanied by 
intense rubbing of the upper lip on the manger, pole or other convenient 
object. 

By wearing a small net, in general character like an ordinary cord 
fly- net, large enough to cover the nostrils and upper lip, the owner found 
he would go fairly well in harness, but the presence of the net was suffi- 
cient to attract attention and prevented his sale. The owner, a dealer, 
was consequently anxious to have some remedy applied which would 
render the animal agreeable to drive and saleable. He was full % persuaded 
that the difficulty lay in an irritation or hypertesthesia of the upper lip, 
and when assured that sensation in this could be almost wholly destoyed 
by sectioning the supermaxillary branch of the trifacial, the owner 
promptly insisted that the operation be tried, which was accordingl}- 
done. 

The horse was cast, the hair shaved from the skin covering the 
infraorbital foramen, and a solution of cocaine injected upon the nerve. 
The skin was thoroughly disinfected and an incision about three-quarters 
of an inch long made directly over the course of the nerve, laying it 
bare. It was then cut through at the infraorbital foramen, after which a 
section of the nerve about three-quarters of an inch, was dissected out 
and excised, the wound dressed with iodoform, sutured with catgut, the 
operation repeated alike on both sides of the head, the patient released, 
and placed in a box. 

The cocaine failed in its mission, and the operation proved one of 
the most painful we have ever witnessed. After the operation the 
symptoms were greatly exaggerated, the animal being quite frantic, 
throwing his head violently and recoiling suddenly whenever his nose 
came in contact with the stall, feed-box or ha\--rack. In a few hours he 
was, with some difficult}-, hitched with his mate and driven home, a 
distance of twenty miles, though found exceedingly difficult to manage, 
a serious disaster being narrowly averted at one time. 

Soon after reaching home the exalted nervousness subsided and 
marked improvement soon set in, the wounds healed aseptically, and 
within a few days the patient had recovered from both operation and 
malady and waJ? driving normally, and continues sound now after about 
four months. 



i 

The results of this operation indicate a peripheral neurosis of the 
trifacial, and go far to contradict the belief that it is a habit or vice. 

The operation itself is exceedingly simple and easy, but it is the 
most painful in which we have ever engaged, and should be undertaken, 
it seems to us, only under complete general anaesthesia. With proper 
precautions aseptic healing should be readily attained. • 

No attempt should be made to work the animal for some days after 
treatment. Our success seems to indicate that the operation is a radical 
cure for the malady and capable of fully restoring the usefulness of this 
class of animals. 



traumatic pericarditis in a cow ; 
rp:covery. 



Bv W. h. Williams. 

From Journal of Comparative Medicine and Veterinary Archives. 
Jiil\\ /Sgy. P. 451. 



There is iisualh' so little to be hoped for in traumatic precarditis in 
the cow that the following observation seems worth}- of record : 

The patient was a valual)le Jersey cow in vigorous health and in 
milk. 

About January, 1896, 1 was called to attend her for tympany, which 
was moderate and accompanied by painful respirations with grunting 
during expiration, and a general stiffness and disinclination to move, 
which led us to suspect the ingestion of a pointed foreign body. The 
rumen was punctured, saline purgatives with carminatives administered, 
followed by apparent recovery. 

About four weeks later I was recalled, and found the patient dull, 
stiff, disinclined to move, feverish, dry muzzle, inappetence, tumultuous 
pulse, intermittent and irregular, with abnormal pericardial sounds. 
The sypmtoms were referred to the prior attack of tympany, and 
traumatic pericarditis diagnosed and an unfavorable prognosis given. 
Small doses of digitalis were administered three times daily, and within 
a few da3'S distinct improvement was noted, the appetite returned, febrile 
symptoms abated, the movements became more free, and the milk flow 
became normal. 

Early in June following I w^as requested to examine the animal, and 
found a prominent tumor beneath and to the right of the sternum in the 
anterior angle of the space formed by the ensiform and last costal cartil- 
ages. The tumor was fluctuating, and, being punctured, about one pint 
of grayish, very fetid pus escaped. Exploring the cavity wath the 
finger, two irregular pieces of bone were found, the larger being one-half 
by three-quarter inches, and sharp. Both were apparently originally of 
the same piece, and in texture and general appearance had apparently 
come from a rib or vertebne, probably from a porterhouse steak, the 
bone of which had found its wa)- into the kitchen scraps which were fed 
habitually to the cow. 

It seems quite certain that a bone had in this manner been swallowed 
by the cow, induced the indigestion first noted, penetrated the rumen, 
passing forward to the right posterior surface of the pericardium, causing 
pericarditis, after which it travelled to the right and downward, emerg- 
ing partly decomposed at the point described. 



LUXATION OF THE METACARPO-PHALANGKAL 
ARTICULATION IN A HORSE. 



Bv W. L. Wii.rjAiMS. 

From Journal of Cotiparatizie Medicine and Veterinary Archives. 
July, 1897. P. 452. 



The comparative rarity of luxation without fracture in horse renders 
the following case of interest : 

The patient was a common, medium-sized animal, used for wholesale 
grocery delivery, and while being driven at a trot over a railway croSvSing 
caught her left forefoot between the railroad rail and the crossing board, 
causing her to fall heavily forward on the imprisoned member. 

The foot was pried loose with a crowbar. The animal got up, when 
the driver noticed that the fetlock -joint was out, but was readily replaced 
by him, and 1 was notified by telephone that the patient was on its way 
to our infirmary with its leg out of joint — "walking." On arrival at the 
infirmary the animal w^as walking comfortably without noticeable limp- 
ing, no swelling or other injury about the joint being visible. 

Picking up the leg and flexing it, the phalanges readil}' turned out- 
ward at a right angle to the metacarpus, and were as readily replaced. In 
other directions there appeared to be no abnormal mobility. The luxa- 
tion and replacement caused no apparent pain or discomfort to the 
animal. She was walked home — a few blocks away — and the afTected 
member placed in a firm plaster-of- Paris bandage reaching near to the 
carpus, which was allowed to remain for a week, the case going on 
without incident, and at the end of that time the bandage was removed 
and the animal returned to her accustomed work. 



THREE CONSECUTIVE RECOVERIES FROM 
GLANDERS. 



Bv W. L. Williams. 
Froiii the America )i I'ctcnnary Review, July, i8gj. Pp. 230-234. 



In Bulletin No. 4 of the Montana Agricultural Experiment Sta- 
tion, largely reprinted in the American Veterinary Review ^ Vol. 
XIX, p. 6, we had occasion to note the possibility of recovery- from 
glanders, either with or without treatment, and although such a possi- 
bility is in full accord with the veterinary science of to-day, the popular 
mind is still strongl}^ imbued with the belief that this malady is uni- 
formly and more or less rapidly fatal. Bearing upon this phase of the 
disease it is interesting to note the results of observations and experi- 
ments carried out upon three glandered horses, the property of Mr. Moses 
Decker, Bozeman, Mont. 

Two of these animals are noted in Bui. No. 4, as Nos. 6 and 7, in 
table on page 104, but without special detail, that presented being unfor- 
tunateh' vitiated by typographical errors on page 105, where in 4th line 
from top "No. 5" should read "No. 6" and in 6th line, same page, "No. 
5" should read "No. 7." These two animals, Nos. 6 and 7, were a pair 
of well-bred, light road-mares, used almost exclusively for light road 
work and were constantly together. 

In Dec, 1893, I inspected two horses on Mr. Decker's premises 
which had been kept with Nos. 6 and 7 and which were clearly affected 
with glanders, the septum nasi of one of these being shown in Fig. VII, 
Bui. 4. 

On this trip to inspect the above glandered horses, Nos, 6 and 7 
were used for driving, and it was noted that No. 7 appeared somewhat 
out of health, with harsh, rough coat, but nothing definite could be 
detected. About a month later, however, she developed symptoms of 
acute, nasal glanders, discharging freely from both nostrils with the 
usual tumefaction of submaxillary lymphatic glands, leading the owner 
to conclude from his former experience that she was seriously glandered 
and must soon succumb, causing him to determine to destroy her with- 
out official inspection ; but delaying action, the mare being isolated, she 
improved, regaining flesh and vigor until in March, 1894, she showed no 



constitutional disturbance, but a personal inspection made revealed un- 
mistakable evidence of glanders in the characteristic enlarged, nodular, 
painful and adherent submaxillary lymphatic glands, the glutinous dis- 
charge from the nostrils and the characteristic erodent ulcers upon the 
nasal partition. She continued to improve until on July 3, 1894, when 
she had apparently recovered except slight nodular swelling of the sub- 
maxillary lymphatic glands, at which time a test with mallein was 
undertaken, with the results as recorded in the table on page 104, Bui. 4 
At the same time her mate, No. 7, and another mare. No. 8, both of 
which were apparently sound and believed to be so, were selected as 
"control" animals to act as a check upon the test on No. 6. The test 
revealed that No. 7 was, like No. 6, glandered, and this opinion was 
further demonstrated by succeeding mallein tests, wdiile No. 8 withstood 
this and subsequent tests perfectly. Nos. 6 and 7 were safely isolated 
and kept for observation. 

In the meantime Mr. Decker and his father had a considerable num- 
ber of unbroken horses in a band some miles distant, but which had at 
an earlier date, been in contact with those killed in Dec. 1894, as well 
as Nos. 6 and 7 and some other horses killed on the farm for glanders, 
prior to my connection with the station. Some time in the fall of 
1894 a deputy State Veterinarian killed two animals in this band on 
account of glanders, after which the remainder was brought back into 
the valley and wintered on the farm, when in the spring of 1895 a three- 
year-old developed the characteri.stic S3-mptoms of glanders in mild form, 
and was promptly isolated from the healthy and placed in the enclosure 
with Nos. 6 and 7. We will designate this patient No. 9. 

The three affected animals were allowed the liberty of a small pas- 
ture, were well supplied with good, nutritious food, had access to excel 
lent running water, had reasonable shelter in ver}- inclement weather 
and were not worked. No. 6 continued to improve from the time noted 
above, until to all outward appearance she was wholly recovered in March, 
1895, and has so remained. No. 7 has at no time shown external evidence 
of the disease. During the present season, (1896) Nos. 6 and 7 have 
been put to ordinary work and have done it efficiently and vigorously. 
No. 8 continues to all appearances sound. No. 9 began improving shortly 
after inspection, March 22, 1895, and all physical signs of disease ceased 
during the same summer and have not returned. 

Subsequent to the isolation of No 9, in March, 1895, no new cases 
have been developed upon the farm 

Placing no dependence upon ph3'sical signs alone in this disease, the 
animals in question were studied, by the aid of mallein, as closely as 
their distance from the station and my college duties would permit. 

The subjoined tabular record of mallein tests indicates briefly the 
course of the disease. 





Numbers are as in Bui. 4. 


ge tempera- 
on day pre- 
ug the test. 


erature at time 
sing mallein. 


Is 


hours after iu- 
on when high- 
temperature 
reached. 


ise of temper- 
e in degree 
tigrade. 


;^a 


S 
'3 
< 




1«' 
If 




Date of test. 


Fo 

% 

u rt 


'o 


§.2 


g 




2Ji^ 


aa 


l2i§ 


o'^^^ 


g = s 


2bc'-5 


6 


gii 


a 




^B^ 


CO 


be a. 2 


ol^t 


^rtU 


csa K 


'^ 


•< 


^ 




< 


H 


S" 


Z 


a 


u "^ 


r 


I. 


I 


July 3, 1894 


38.3 


37-7 


40.3 


10 


2.0 


Typical 




0.75 


2 


March 22, 1895 


37.9 


37- 


40.5 


12-30 


2.6 


" 




0.5 


3 


April 14, 1895 


37.9 


38.1 


39-1 


7 


1.2 


Absent 




0.7 


4 


July 31, 1895 




37.9 


38.8 


12 


•9 


i< 




0.8 


5 


June 6, 1896 


'3sr4' 


37-5 


39- 


12 


.6 


a 


7 


I. 


I 


July 3, 1894 


38.2 


37-5 


39.7 


12 


1-5 


Typical 




0.75 


2 


March 22, 1895 


37.7 


38.4 


40.3 


6 


2.6 


<( 




0.5 


3 


April 14, 1895 


37-5 




39-5 


II 


2.0 


<< 




0.7 


4 


July 21, 1895 




37-5 


389 


1 1 


1.4 


Absent 




0.8 


5 


June 6, 1896 


'38.5" 


37.5 


38.3 


9-30 


0.2 


" 


S 


I. 


I 


July 3, 1894 


38.1 


37.3 


38.4 


12 


0.3 


" 




0.8 


2 


March 22, 1895 


37.6 


37- 


37.8 


8 


0.2 


(t 


9 


0.8 


I 


March 22, 1895 


38.4 


39- 


40.4 


4 


2.0 


Typical 




0.7 


2 


July 21, 1895 




38.3 


40.1 


12 


1.8 


•' 




I. 


4 


June 6, 1896 


'38"6' 


37.4 


39.1 


11-30 


.5 


Absent 



The mallein used for above experiments was furnished by the Bureau 
of Animal Industry. Nos. 6 and 7 were animals of about 900 lbs. weight, 
while Nos. 8 and 9 were of about 1200 lbs. weiglit, lience, 0.75 c.c. mal- 
lein for Nos. 6 and 7 equal i c.c. for Nos. 8 and 9, which is the average 
dose advised. 

There is no positive evidence to show that the use of mallein exerted 
any curative effect in either of these animals, although various experi- 
menters have concluded that it is capable of exerting a favorable influ- 
ence upon the disease. It shows, however, that repeated use of mallein 
on an affected animal is at least not injurious. As stated in Bui. 4, the 
disease shows a strong tendency to spontaneous recovery in Montana if 
the animal be well kept, and not confined in stables except in very 
inclement weather. 

The disap])earance of the disea."se on the infected farm after killing 
some of the affected and isolating the others shows, too, that if due care 
is taken it is not extremely difficult to eradicate with the means at our 
command. By many laymen and even some veterinarians this affection 
is termed "catarrh" and ascribed to "taking cold," but when the diseased 
are isolated, the healthy animals cease to "take cold." The time re- 
quired in which recovery from glanders may take place, the uncertainty 
of its taking place, the difficulty of knowing if an affected animal has 
reall}' or only apparently recovered, the danger through accident to other 
animals or to man all militate strongly against any treatment yet pro- 
posed and render it impracticable, unsafe and only admissible as yet 
under ])eculiarly favorable surroundings as an interesting and valuable 
experiment, and generally leave the summary destruction of all affected 
animals the sole efficient means for its control or eradication. 



INFECTIOUS ABORTION OF MARES. 



By W. L. Williams. 
From the American Veterinary Reviezv, August, i8gj. Pp. 30j-jo§. 



Infectious abortion as a distinct, specific malady has long been rec- 
ognized among domesticated animals, and distinguished from greneral 
transmissable diseases which in the course of their attack may induce 
abortion of the pregnant females, as seen in hog cholera affecting preg- 
nant cows, or the so-called "pink-eye" or epizootic (infectious) celluli- 
tis of mares ; as well as the sometimes wholesale abortions reported from 
ergotized or other deleterious foods. 

A brief resume of the literature upon the subject, as relating to the 
affection in mares, is given in connection with the records of some exper- 
imental work conducted by us, in the sixth and seventh annual reports 
of the Bureau of Animal Industry, Department of Agriculture, p. 449. 

It is desired here to briefly record some observations made upon the 
control of the disease when once existing in a herd of pregnant mares. 
These observations were made in a herd of standard trotting and thor- 
oughbred mares, the property of Mr. H., Bozeman, Mont. 

In all, Mr. H. had, in November, 1895, twenty -five mares presuma- 
bly pregnant. None of them worked except one grade draft mare, and 
all had apparently faultless care as to freedom, housing, feed and wa- 
ter. The first animal to abort was the grade draft mare used for general 
farm work, the abortion occurring in November, 1895, followed by some- 
what widely separated abortions of three trotting mares, which led to our 
being consulted early in 1896, after which a close watch was kept, and 
on February 7th we were called to attend a young trotting mare which 
had apparently been in labor for some twelve to eighteen hours ; the 
foetal membranes, considerably decomposed and discolored, were hang- 
ing from the vulva. The foetus was found in a false position, which was 
readily corrected and the mare easily delivered. The foetus was hairless, 
apparently of about eight months gestation. The afterbirth was removed, 
the uterus irrigated with carbolized water, and the patient comfortably 
housed. She apparently was doing well, ate moderately, and seemed 
gafely on the road to recovery, until on the morning of the 9th she was 



found dead in her stall. Autopsy revealed all organs except the genera- 
tive apparently healthy. The uterus was enlarged, swollen and contained 
a large amount of a dirty, ffjetid, watery excretion, while in the os and 
vagina were large masses of tough, foetid, dirty, yellowish, croupous 
exudate. 

During the ineffectual labor of the patient she was in company with 
some fifteen other pregnant mares. These were promptly removed to 
new quarters, and each mare received a vaginal injection of a solution of 
corrosive sublimate, i-iooo, to be followed daily with a sponging of the 
vulva, tail and surrounding parts with the same solution. 

During the nights of February 26, 27 and 28 each, a mare aborted 
without having presented any signs of approaching trouble when left for 
the night, and the first intimation of the loss was the finding of the dead 
foetuses in the stalls on the following mornings, the mares in each case 
being apparently well. The aborted mares were promptly removed to 
other premi.ses, the foetuses and membranes safely disposed of, the bed- 
ding cleared away and burned, the stalls fumigated by burning sidphur, 
and closed against other animals, and the sponging of the vulva and tail 
of the remaining pregnant mares renewed and carried out twice daily. 

A few days later another mare, not known to have been in contact 
with those which had aborted, required aid in expelling a dead foetus, 
and although carefully watched, developed severe metritis after forty- 
eight hours, which yielded to treatment. 

The abortions ceased at this point, and in the course of a few weeks 
healthy foals were dropped as the remaining pregnant mares completed 
their periods of gestation. 

The history of the outbreak, coupled with the symptoms, served to 
quite full}- confirm the suspicion of infectious abortion. 

The results of the antiseptic treatment point strongly to the belief 
held by most observers that the disease is essentially one of the foetal 
membranes and fcetus, gaining access to these through the vulva and 
vagina, and serve to confirm results of a similar treatment carried out by 
several investigators in infectious abortions of cows and ewes. Although 
several mares aborted after the treatment had been applied, it is quite 
safe to assume that the infecting agent had already gained access to the 
frctal membranes before the application of the treatment, which could 
not then be of any possible avail. 

The disease having apparently ceased, JMr. H. again bred a part of 
his mares, and on December 29, 1896, reported that he had ten healthy 
foals of the previous spring, and that all mares bred seemed safely in 
foal, no abortions having occurred so far as discovered since those above 
recorded. 

The origin of the affection in the herd of Mr. II. could not be 
clearly traced, but the malad}' seemed to ])e prevalent to some degree 
among mares on neighboring farms. 



Mr. II. had on his premises also several mares which had come from 
the herd of Mr. I)., where the disease had raged to such an extent, in 
the summer of 1891, that practically all mares had a])orted. 

In view of the success recorded by various observers with the plan 
of treatment here outlined and the confirmator}- observations in this 
outbreak, it appears that when the disease exists among animals of suffi- 
cient value, its control and eradication may be undertaken with reasona- 
ble hope of success. 



THE PARAvSlTiC ICTKRO-HAKMATURIA 
OF vSHEEP. 



Bv \\. L. \Vii.i.iA^is. 
From the American Veterinary Revieiv, September, iSgy. Pp. 377-3S0. 



Under date of Jul}' ist, i<S95, was published under part of Bulletin 
No. 8, of the Montana Agricultural Experiment Station, some prelimi- 
nar}' investigations regarding an outbreak of parasitic ictero-htematuria, 
or red water and jaundice of sheep, a disease heretofore described, so 
far as we know, only by Profs. Babes, of Roumania, and Bonome, of 
Italy. Since the publication of Bulletin No. 8, no outbreaks of the dis- 
ease have been reported outside the area originally infected, and no 
reliable information has been gleaned to indicate the existence of this fatal 
malad}' anywhere in the United States, except in the Silver Bow and 
Deer Lodge \'alley, near Butte, Mont. The subject is one of great scien- 
tific interest, and while of economic importance in a ver}- limited area 
onl3^ the possibility of other sheep ranges becoming similarl}- infested 
lends to the su1)ject sufficient importance to warrant further study of its 
nature, and led me to keep as close watch as possible regarding its 
further continuance and spread. 

The preliminar}' account of the disease, published in Bulletin No. 8, 
appeared in full in the Veterinary Tl/^ifrt'^'z;/^ (Philadelphia), Vol. II, 

P- 497- 

In the meantime the disease had abated, several owners sold the 
remnants of their herds, and nothing more was known of the malady 
until on May 28th, this year, a telegram was received from Mr. M., of 
Silver Bow, announcing its reappearance. 

Proceeding to Silver Bow, on Ma}- 29th, it was learned that the dis- 
ease, so far as known, was confined to the herd of Mr. M. His herd had 
wintered in the lower Silver Bow Valley, and had remained free from 
any epizootic disease until its removal. May 9th, to the foothills some 
three miles from its winter quarters, where, after a sta}- of a])out ten 
days, the disease appeared in a pronounced form, and sheep began dying 
in considerable numbers. 



The herd was a mixed one of iScx) sheep, largely ewes, and 240 
Angora goats. About the iSth or lytli (^f May, the sheep began dying 
at the rate of two to four daily, and continued through June. During 
the investigations of a year ago it was thought that o.ie or two Angora 
goats had died of the disease, but in the present outbreak none of the 
240 goats, which coniiningled freely with the sheep, showed any signs of 
the malady. 

On May 30th post-mortem examinations were made on three affected 
animals, the results of which follow. 

Case No. /. — An aged Merino ewe, about 50 lbs. weight, weak and 
emaciated, was killed by bleeding. The subcutaneous connective tissue 
was of a pale, dirty-yellow color, the abdomen contained three or four 
ounces of dark colored serum, liver slightly enlarged, yellow, firm ; gall 
bladder distended with dark-green bile, the connective tissues surround- 
ing the gall bladder infiltrated with pale, dirty-brownish serum. Ali- 
mentary canal was moderately filled with food and offered nothing of 
note except a well-marked dirty-brown effusion along the smaller curva- 
tures of omasum and abomasum. Kidneys enlarged, dark, soft, and on 
section much blackish urine exuded ; bladder contained eight ounces 
dark-brown, semi-transparent urine. Uterus contained placental debris 
from recent parturition. Spleen small, globular, contracted, black on 
section. Lungs, normal, heart pale, flabby and empty. Facial sinuses 
contained six oestrus larvae. 

Case No. 2. — Grade Leicester ewe, 75 ll)s. , down, unable to rise. 
Conjunctivae dirt3'-brown in color. Killed by bleeding. The blood 
flowed freely (black, thin and smeared on a glsss slide appeared to be 
dirty-brown in color, quite devoid of the usual red). Subcutaneous con- 
nective tissue dark, dirty -yellow. Omental and messnteric fat dirty, 
dark -yellowish brown, spleen small, firm, dark ; the liver large, dark in 
color, the lobules yellow, the inter-lobular spaces filled with blood which 
gave a general dark color ; the gall bladder contained about ten ounces 
dirty yellow bile, the bile duct contained five taenia fimbriata, each 
about six inches in length. Kidney slightly enlarged, dark-brown, 
moist in section, bladder empty. Pericardium contained half an ounce 
orange-colored serum, and showed numerous ecchAmioses of the size of a 
pinhead ; endocardium of left ventricle profusely ecchymosed, the dis- 
colorations being as much as one inch long by one-eighth of an inch 
wide, the heart tissues were flaccid and dirty pale-yellowish. The uterus 
contained placental debris of apparently three to four days standing. 
The facial sinuses contained four oestrus larvae. 

Case No. j. — An aged Merino ewe, about 70 lbs. weight, with young 
lamb at side, in fair flesh, able to walk. Conjunctivae and skin a dirty 
olive color. Was killed by bleeding and autopsy made at once. Blood 
moderate in amount, and of a dirty reddish-brown color. Subcutaneous 
connective tissues throughout the body, and to a lesser degree the mus- 



cular tissues, were of a dirty leaden color, giving appearance of animal 
having Ijeen dead for a nuinl)er of hours, with consequent post-mortem 
changes. There was, however, no abnormal odor, emphysema nor other 
evidences of decomposition. The alimentary tract was well filled with 
with food, the liver large, dark yellowish ])rown, very friable ; the gall 
bladder moderately filled witli yellow bile. The kidneys nmch enlarged, 
blue-black in color, cedematous, soft, on section very moist ; bladder 
almost empty, urine dirty brown in color. Heart was pale and flaccid. 
The facial sinuses contained six oestrus larvte. 

Case No. 4. — A large yearling ewe, not pregnant, weak, moved with 
staggering gait, ears drooping, very cedematous, being two or three times 
their normal thickness. Conjunctivae and skin had a bright lemon color. 
Patient killed by bleeding, blood scanty and feebly coagulable. Body 
well nourished and fat, all adipose and connective tissues throughout the 
body were of an intense lemon-yellow color, even the chordae tendinae 
of the heart partaking of the same color in a marked degree. Liver 
enlarged, bright 3'ellow in color, lobules well marked, interlobular tissue 
being congested and dark red. The gall bladder contained 10 ounces 
of dark black-green bile, so dark as to appear perfectly black cm masse. 
Kidneys slightly soft, moist ; bladder contained one ounce of cofTee- 
colored urine. Spleen small, contracted, hemispherical. Intestinal 
tract well filled, normal. 

The above cases given in detail are essentiall}- parallel to the results 
summarized in Bulletin No. 8 of the Montana Station with the notable 
exception of Case No. 3, in which the color of the tissues was very dif- 
ferent, yet agreed in one important particular — the evidently grave dis- 
organization of the blood cells. Case No. 4 exhibited, in a marked de- 
gree, a S3^mptom, the cedema of the ears, which was only occasionally noted 
in the outbreak described in Bulletin No. 8, while in the above outbreak 
the Chinese shepherd usually noted the oedema of the ears as the first 
symptom of the disease, and, believing that slitting the ears in some 
wa}' modified the disease, habitually practiced it and noted the escape 
from the wound of nmch of this anasarcous fluid. The face, too, was not 
infrequently swollen. An interesting observation was the fact that 
almost all affected animals were ewes which had but recently, two to 
six days prior, given birth to lambs, the ordeal of parturition appar- 
ently inducing a condition of the system which more readily permitted 
the ravages of the micro-parasite. 



EXTREME LUXATION OF THE PATELLAE 
IN A FOAL. 



By W. L. \Vii.i.iams. 
From the American Veterinary Review, October, iSgj. Pp. 444-4^3. 



The subject, a filly of trotting breed, foaled May 27, 1897, was of 
good size and form, was able to stand and suck, and to the attendants 
appeared well. 

The umbilical cord was ligated with a coarse, dirty string and the 
foal, with its dam, kept in a box stall. 

It remained apparently well until May 31, when the stifles became 
much swollen and the foal was unable to stand without assistance. 

At this time Dr. G. was called and found it unable to get up on 
its hind legs, while the two anterior limbs appeared normal. Each stifle 
was found inflamed, hot, tender and much swollen. The temperature 
was somewhat abnormal, though a definite record was not kept ; the pvilse 
was accelerated, and the general signs of moderate fever were present. 
The remnant of the umbilical cord was still present, well dessicated, and 
the ligature applied at birth was in situ. No evidence of infection ex- 
isted at the umbilicus. 

A diagnosis of umbilical infection was made and peroxide of hydro- 
gen with salicylate of sodium administered internally and a stimulating 
liniment applied to the affected joints 

With careful nursing and frequent assistance in reaching the dam's 
teat the foal continued to thrive generally, though unable to stand erect, 
but could attain a crouching attitude, erect in front, with complete flex- 
ion of the femoro-tibial articulations. 

The general line of treatment was continued until July 2d, withont 
material result ; the dropsy of the joints had increased, and later with 
the subsidence of the inflammation had decreased and the synovial cap- 
sule had thickened. 

At this date Professor Law and the writer found the patient unable to 
extend the femoro-tibial articulations, nor could they be fully extended 



by the application of moderate force, while the two fore limbs tended to 
bend forward at the carpal joints, renderin«j; difiicult the maintenance of 
even the crcjuching position mentioned, for a sufficient period for the 
foal to suck. The hydrarthroses had extended far beyond the normal 
outline of the burste, especially outwards, extending over the external 
surfaces of the lower ends of femora and upper ends of tibice, the definite 
outline of the burste being lost externally and inferiorly in the general 
swelling and thickening of the parts. The enlargements were free from 
abnormal heat or tenderness. 

The patellae were displaced outwards and backwards and could be 
readily felt opposite the posterior border of external femoral condyles in 
immediate proximity to the posterior border of the tibiae at a distance 
from the heads of these bones corresponding to the tibial points of 
attachment of the tibio-patellar ligaments. 

The femoral trochleie appeared to be normal, but the patelleae could 
not be replaced in them by ordinary manipulation. Bed sores were pres- 
ent on the anterior faces of the fetlock joints. 

The attitude of the foal when attempting to stand and the positions 
of the crural triceps group of muscles, especially the outlines of the rec- 
tus femoris and vastus externus and the location of the patella of left 
leg, are shown in Fig. i. The muscles of the posterior limbs appeared 
normal in size and form, but the extreme displacement of the patellae 
destroyed completely their power to extend the femoro-tibial articulation, 
and to a great degree the extension of the coxo-femoral and tibio-tarsal 
joints. 

The foal was destroyed on July 3d by bleeding and the autopsy re- 
vealed the following abnormalities : 

The extensor pedis tendon of the left anterior limb was ruptured be- 
twccn its connnunication with tlie lateral extensor of the phalanges and 
the annular carpal ligament within the Ijursa through which it glides 
over the carpus, the nuiscidar end of the tendon being indirectly adher- 
ent to the carpal ligament through its librous sheath, while the distal end 
was free in the bursa, hieniorrhagic, smooth and enlarged. The direct or 
main tendon of the extensor pedis of the right anterior limb had parted 
within its carpal bursa, the superior end had become indistinguishably 
fused with the communicating division without leaving macroscopical 
traces of traumatism or innanimation. The ruptured end of the distal 
portion lay free within tlie bursa, enlarged, ecchymotic and smooth. The 
connnunicating branch of the tendon destined for the lateral extensor of 
the ])halanges instead of consisting of one intact cord was teased out into 
numerous small fibres for a di.stance of two inches immediately in front 
of the carpus. The carpal bursa of the tendon appeared normal. 

The vastus externus nuiscles { iMg. Ill r) were but slightly modi- 
fied in direction ; the rectus femoris (Fig. Ill b) assumed an oblique di- 
rection downwards, outwards and backwards, while the vastus internus 
( b'ig. Ill a) was stretched across the fenuu' just above the lower articular 



enlargement in an almost transverse direction, and seemed pale, thin and 
atrophied. 

The three tibio-patellar and the capsular ligaments were indistin- 
guishable, being represented by a thick fibrous capsule co-equal in extent 
with the enlarged parts. 

The femoro-patellar synovial cavities, which had at an earl}- date 
apparently been much more distended, contained now about one and 
one-half pints each of an apparently normal synovia, along with an 
almost equal volume of quite firm, semi-transparent, faintly greenish 
yellow synovial clot attached chiefly at the point of union between the 
capsular ligament and bone, and presenting centrally a free shredded 
margin three-fourths to one inch thick. (Figs. IV and Y d d.) 

The synovial clots were in places feebly adherent to the articular 
surface, which Avas normal, except that at the inferior part of the right 
femoral trochlea the external ridge had been W'Orn aw'ay to a marked 
extent, denuding it of articular cartilage and subjacent osseous tissue 
(Figs. IV and V d.) As the patella could not at this time be brought 
in contact wnth the worn part, the destruction must have occurred at an 
earl}- stage of the affection. 

Well marked ecchymosis was present about the patella and patellar 
attachment of crural triceps as a result of the dragging of the misplaced 
parts upon contiguous tissues in the patient's efforts to extend the joint. 

The extreme degree of luxation serves to explain and emphasize im- 
portant facts in the etiology and history of closely allied or generically 
identical cases. The history and autopsy point to naval affection as the 
possible cause, this possibility being increased by the ligation of the um- 
bilical cord, by which means the cut ends of two hollow vessels, the um- 
bilical arteries, which would otherwise retract, w^ere fixed in a position 
rendering their invasion probable, while the blood and liquids wdthin the 
tissues of the cord were retained, serving as an excellent culture medium 
for putrefactive micro-organisms. 

The patellar dislocations w^ere evidently due to the hyper-secretion of 
synovia, which, distending the sacs, lifted the patellae out of their 
grooves and beyond their retaining ridges w^hen a combination of forces 
determined an outward luxation. 

It has been held that external luxation of the patella is due to the 
lesser elevation of the external trochlear ridge, but this alone in such a 
case could not determine the direction of the dislocation nor even cause 
luxation at all. In this "floating" luxation the intra-articular pressure 
is alike in every direction, the walls of the capsule yielding at the vari- 
ous parts in inverse ratio to their strength, supplemented by other con- 
tiguous ligaments and tissues involved, so that the longer and thinner 
internal tibio-patellar ligament would yield more readily than the 
shorter, thicker and stronger external, thus guiding the patella outwards, 
which is further greatly favored by the disposition of the powerful long 



vastus muscle, which tlirout^h its attachment to the external ligament 
exerts an abducting power upon the patella which the abductors do not 
fully counterbalance upon this bone, hence we recognize as factors in 
outward luxation the lesser external ridge, the lesser strength of internal 
tibio-patellar ligament and the superior abducting power on the patella 
of the long vastus muscle. 

The degree of luxation was evidently intensified by being bilateral 
so that any effort on the part of the patient to rise could not be centered 
on a sound limb, but must fall alike on each of two members, neither of 
which was capable of bearing weight except by an outward dragging 
upon the patella, which, buoyed out beyond its groove, was readily 
drawn from its normal location. 

The case serves to illustrate, too, what the writer has long main- 
tained, two generically different forms of patellar luxation, the "float- 
ing" form occurring almost wholly in young animals and caused chiefly 
by navel iufeclion and rickets, in which, buoyed up beyond its groove by 
a hydrarthrosis, the patella tends to pass outward during flexion when 
the crural triceps and consequently the internal tibio-patellar ligament is 
relaxed and inwards during extension, thus denuding and in time wear- 
in away the external ridge of the femoral trochlea ; and the traumatic or 
direct form, in which the luxation is suddenly produced by violence. 

An important fact well emphasized in this case is the value of pre- 
venting in young animals the accumulation of sufficient synovia in the 
femoro-patellar articukition to buo}' the patella outwards be3-ond the level 
of the trochlear ridges, which is to be accomplished by sufficiently fre- 
quent aspirations of the fluid in conjunction with the injection of appro- 
priate remedies into the synovial sack. 




CROUCHING ATTITUDE OF FOAL DUE TO DISPLACEMENT OF 

THE TWO PATELLA. 

a Crural triceps muscles. b Left patella. 



<u 



\^ 



^ 






(J -Si 
1. J! 

aJ > 



^r' 




1/3 

be 3 






o o 

~ t/! 



.;5 > 



>^ 



*~T 










oi 2 

5 ^ 

O X 

I * 



'A 5 




FIG. IV.— ANTERIOR VIEW OF EEFT STIFLE WITH FEMORO-PATELLAR 
CAP.SUI.E OPENED. 

a Femoral trochlea. c Location of patella. 

b b Synovial clots. d Abraded external trochlear ridg-e. 



INHALATION PNEUMONIA. 

By W. L. Williams, Professor of Surgery, and P. A. Fish, Professor of Thera- 
peutics AT THE New York State Veterinary College. 

A Paper read before the United States Veterinary Medical Association at Nashville, 

September 9, 1897. 



The inhalation of foreign bodies, whether mechanical, chem- 
ical or bacterial tend usually toward bacterial invasion of the 
bronchial mucosae, extending thence to the deeper parts, finally 
involving all tissues of the lungs, inducing suppuration, necrosis 
and death. 

The symptoms vary greatly in detail, though in general pre- 
sent the ordinary signs of bronchitis and pneumonia, along with 
expectoration of foetid bronchial secretions, with such variations 
in chest sounds as would result from the presence in the tubes 
of the foreign bodies inhaled or of the products of disease. 

The most common causes are the inhalation of medicines 
during their forced administration, of food particles during coma, 
as in parturient apoplexy of the cow, of pathogenic organisms 
and their products after arytenectomy for the cure of laryngis- 
mus paralyticus in horses or other operations involving the up- 
per air passages, by the inhalation of pus discharged into the 
fauces or upper air passages from abscesses, diseased teeth or tu- 
mors, by animal parasites in the air passages, by the inhalation 
of irritant gases, or hot smoke, or of liquid chloroform during 
the production of anaesthesia and by a great variety of more 
rare accidents ending in the lodgment of irritant foreign bodies 
within the air passages. 

We might include also a highly important class of infections 
like diphtheria, in which there is a tendency for the extension 
of the lesions to the lungs, or of tuberculosis, actinomycosis and 
glanders, where there frequently occurs necrosis and softening 
of patches of lung tissue, which, discharging into the bronchii, 
tend to pass upward, only to be in part carried backward into 
neighboring bronchii, establishing there their typical patho- 



W. L. WILLIAMS AND P. A. FISH. 



logical processes in that manner commonly termed auto-infec- 
tion. 

The handling- of these cases has, as a rule, proven ineffectual, 
and led practitioners to recoil from them with well founded 
dread. 

The plan of treatment usually adopted has consisted of the 
internal administration of expectorants and sedatives with some 
of the gum-resins possessing antiseptic properties and which are 
largely excreted by the lungs, and the inhalation of vapors, either 
simple or medicated. 

Intra-tracheal injections of vermicides have been success- 
fully employed in verminous bronchitis, and the bronchial 
mucosa has been used as a prompt and reliable absorbent sur- 
face for the administration of various drugs in solutions of small 
volume. The senior writer has attempted the administration of 
antiseptics in small volumes by intra-tracheal injection in cases 
of suppurative bronchitis, and has endeavored to aspirate suppu- 
rative areas of the lung and inject the cavities with antiseptics, 
but without noteworthy success. 

Beaumont Small (Handbook of Med. Sci. IX, 756) em- 
ployed a I to 500 solution of pyoktanin in the form of intrapul- 
monary injection of 8 to 16 minims in pulmonary tuberculosis, 
w^hich was reported well borne, except that when reaching the 
bronchii it caused violent coughing, but was said to have les- 
sened the hectic condition and diminished the number of bacilli 
in the sputa. 

We have been unable to find record of any attempts to ad- 
minister per trachea for therapeutic purposes, large volumes of 
liquids either as mechanical detergents or as topical or general 
antiseptics, the filling of the lower air passages with liqiiids be- 
ing associated in the popular mind with drowning. 

Opposed to this fear existed the well-known fact that in par- 
tial drowning the water which had well filled the air passages 
was in many cases partly drained out, largely absorbed, and the 
patient left little worse for the experience beyond the physical 
shock. 



INHALATION PNEUMONIA. 



It had also been shown experimentally that large quantities 
of water could be slowly introduced into the lungs through the 
trachea and become absorbed without untoward results, while a 
like volume introduced rapidly and persistently would produce 
profound disturbance and eventually death. Notwithstanding 
that absorption occurs more rapidly in the lungs than elsewhere 
in the body, excess of fluid effects material changes not only in 
the respiratory epithelium, but also in the blood in which any 
change must necessarily affect all other tissues. 

In an experiment at Lyon, France, under the direction of 
Gohier, 30 litres (7^ gals.) of water were injected into the 
trachea of a horse without causing death. In another case it 
required 40 litres (10 gals.) to kill the animal by suffocation. 
Colin (1873, ^o\. 2, p. 109) experimenting along the same 
line introduced into the trachea of a horse by means of a special 
apparatus, 6 litres of water per hour at a temperature of 30 to 
35 degrees C, which was continued for 31^ hours, making a 
total of 20 litres, after which the animal was immediately de- 
stroyed, the bronchii quickly opened, but found empty, all the 
water having been absorbed. 

In another horse he introduced into the trachea 25 litres of 
water in six hours, and bled him three times at intervals of two 
hours, obtaining 6 kilogrammes (i3y^-o lbs.) of blood. The res- 
piratory mucosa absorbed all the water without apparent incon- 
venience to the animal. 

Intra-tracheal medication, though not in general use, has 
much to recommend it when rapid effects are desired, especially 
in those pulmonary diseases where antiseptics are indicated. 

Among the agents best adapted for this use, is hydrogen per- 
oxide, which is antiseptic, non-toxic, deodorant, styptic, and in 
dilute solution non-irritant. 

With these facts and suggestions before us, two cases were 
presented at the clinics of the New York State Veterinary Col- 
lege, which served to invite more radical attempts at intra- 
tracheal medication than had previously to our knowledge been 
undertaken, the results of which were to us at once so unex- 



W. L. WILLIAMS AND P. A. FISH. 



pected and instructive, that we felt ourselves warranted in com- 
municating them to the profession, though admitting that our 
experiments were preliminar}^ and quite incomplete. 

Case I. was an adult roadster gelding, vigorous and sound so 
far as known except well marked laryngismus paralyticus, on 
which account he entered the clinic for the removal of the left 
arytenoid cartilage. After careful dieting he was cast for the 
operation on June 3d. General anaesthesia was omitted and 
cocaine used to produce local insensibility. A tracheotomy tube 
was inserted some twelve inches downwards from the larynx, 
after which the arytenoid cartilage was excised in the ordinary 
manner by the senior author of this paper. The patient fought 
viciously throughout the operation, and the day being warm he 
became very hot and bathed in profuse prespiration. 

The operation completed, the tampon trachea tube was in- 
serted and the operation field tamponaded with absorbent cotton 
and iodoform. 

When released, the patient required assistance to regain his 
feet, and was so greatly exhausted that he was placed in slings. 

On June 4th the tampon and canula were removed, the 
operation field carefully sponged with i-iooo sublimate solution, 
and the horse was permitted to drink a goodly quantity of milk, 
which he apparently relished. From this time until June loth 
the patient seemed bright, drank liquid food with avidity, tem- 
perature was normal, and all appeared well except an abundant 
and ever-increasing foetid purulent discharge from the nostrils 
and tracheal openings. 

On June loth he appeared weaker and had fallen down, but 
was quickly assisted to his feet, and the foetor of tracheal dis- 
charges still increasing, we injected small quantities of hydro- 
gen peroxide into the trachea, which caused the discharge of 
some froth. 

On the nth well-defined suppurative broncho-pneumonia 
was noted, the patient w^as rapidly failing, and the area of dis- 
ease was so great that the intra-tracheal injection of small vol- 
umes of antiseptics could promise no benefit. At this juncture 



INHALATION PNEUMONIA. 



Professor Law suggested that as an experiment on a hopeless 
case we might, in the light of the experiments noted above, at- 
tempt the administration of antiseptics by the intra-tracheal 
injection of large volumes of liquids and permit them to be ab- 
sorbed from the pulmonary mucosa. We prepared a tepid 
solution consisting of 5 litres of water, 30 grammes sod. chlor. 
and 60 c. c. of the commercial solution of hydrogen peroxide. 

Placing this in an irrigating reservoir at an elevation of ten 
feet above the animal, with the liquid gravitating downward 
through }i inch rubber tubing and escaping through a ^-inch 
nozzle, the latter was inserted in the tracheal opening and the 
liquid allowed to flow into the trachea in a full stream until 
about one litre had entered, when by an expulsive effort the 
greater part was thrown out through the tracheal openings, 
mouth and nostrils, the liquid emerging frothy and carrying 
with it foetid discharges. As soon as that which had been 
thrown into the trachea was well out the process was quickly 
repeated until within 10 minutes the entire 5 litres of liquid had 
passed into the trachea, the greater part of it having been 
thrown out again, carrying with it much putrid material. 

This was accomplished without apparent distress to the 
patient, causing only a moderate amount of coughing with 
each expulsive effort, and leaving him at the conclusion of the 
ordeal apparently without additional fatigue and with the foetor 
of his breath very effectively diminished, his air passages clean 
and to all appearances the local conditions materially improved. 
The patient died on the following day without our having re- 
peated the treatment, and the autopsy showed extensive necrotic 
broncho-pneumonia. 

The only result .gathered from the case was the facility with 
which large volumes of liquids could be rapidly introduced into 
the trachea without producing inconvenience to the animal 
worthy of remark, at the same time thoroughly flushing out the 
air passages and measurably deodorizing and disinfecting them. 

Case II. was in all material respects like I operated upon on 
June 4th this year, in the same manner as No. I. by student H. 



6 W. L. WILLIAMS AND P. A. FISH. 

The patient struggled less violently than L, and was less fatigued 
after the operation. 

Tampon and tampon canula applied as in I. and removed on 
following day. 

Deglutition very imperfect, almost all fluids taken into the 
pharnyx being expelled through the nostrils and tracheal open- 
ings. 

From June 6th to I2th the loss of power of deglutition con- 
tinued unabated, and there were no notable changes except that 
gradually increasing foetid discharges took place from the nos- 
trils and tracheal and laryngeal openings. By the 13th of June 
the patient had become exceedingly weak, having been practi- 
cally without food, either solid or liquid, for nine days. At this 
stage the tracheotomy tube which had been removed on June 
6th was replaced as a precautionary measure, and the patient 
allowed to eat succulent grass and soft bran and linseed mashes, 
of which he partook sparingly, much of it dropping out through 
the laryngeal opening. By June 17th the breath had become 
very foetid, w^hich on the i8th had become excessively stinking. 

An examination of the tracheal wound revealed a necrotic 
piece of cartilage which was excised. We then introduced into 
the trachea 5 litres of tepid water, with 30 grammes sod. chlor. 
and 60 c. c. solution of hydrogen peroxide, which flowing in 
rapidly was largely expelled, flushing thoroughly the air pas- 
sages, pharynx and surgical wounds, cleansing and deodorizing 
the parts. 

On the 19th the foetor seemed so much less that the irriga- 
tion was omitted, but on the 20th the foetor had increased and 
the lungs were again flushed out like on the 1 8th without induc- 
ing any marked discomfort. The intra-tracheal treatment was 
now discontinued. 

After this the patient seemed to improve slowly if at all, in 
strength, appetite and power of deglutition, and was greatly har- 
assed by a persistent cough. The tracheotomy tube was re- 
moved on June 25th, as the power of deglutition now seemed 
restored, and by July 14th the tracheal and laryngeal wounds 



INHALATION PNEUMONIA. 



had closed, but the cough continued, the patient remained 
emaciated and weak, the appetite indifferent, the breath had 
again become foetid, especially evident during his fits of cough- 
ing, during which he expectorated through the mouth or ex- 
pelled through the nose dirty gray very foetid discharges. As 
there was evidently still some serious pathological condition 
present, we re-opened the laryngeal and tracheal wounds for ex- 
amination, finding each completely healed and all adjacent parts 
apparently normal. 

We had barely completed our physical examination of the 
parts when in a fit of coughing he expelled through the laryn- 
geal incision an excessively foetid dirty grayish tenacious mass 
which it could now be no longer doubted had emanated from low 
down within the bronchii and indicated local purulent broncho- 
pneumonia. 

We then began anew the irrigation of the bronchii, the vol- 
ume, composition and mode of administration of the fluid re- 
maining the same, and being repeated daily. 

On the 15th we began the internal administration of quin- 
ine sulphate, 3 i, nux vomica grs. xx, and arsenic grs. ii, twice 
daily. 

At the first expulsive effort during each irrigation, the pa- 
tient expelled with the water about 10 c. c. of a dirty gray very 
foetid tenacious discharge, and on July 17th, he expelled a piece 
of foetid necrotic tissue estimated to weigh 2 grammes. 

On July 1 8th, the volume of water was reduced to 3 litres, 
the sodium chloride correspondingly, leaving it at 6%.^ while 
the volume of hydrogen peroxide was left unchanged. 

On July 19th, five days after the beginning of the regular 
daily irrigations, the foe tor of the expectorated mass had greatly 
diminished, while its color had changed to almost that of ordi- 
nary mucous. 

July 20th no foetor could be detected in expectorate, nor in 
expired air. 

July 26th, the hydrogen peroxide was doubled, which caused 
more coughing and resulted in increased discharge of bronchial 



8 w. L. willia'ms and p. a. fish. 

secretion on the 27th and 28th, though the hydrogen peroxide 
had been reduced on the 27th to the original amount and was 
so continued thereafter. 

By July 31st the patient had markedly improved in every 
way, was gaining rapidly in flesh, the cough was less frequent, 
the bronchial discharge less, and seen practically only at times 
of irrigation, and the animal would run and play in the pad- 
dock. 

The use of the tracheotomy tube, through which injections 
were made, was dispensed with on July 30th and the nozzle of 
the injecting tube inserted directly in the trachea with an 
apparent advantage in causing less coughing. 

On August 2d the patient had so far recovered that treat- 
ment was discontinued and the tracheal wound permitted to 
close. 

August 7th he was hitched to a buggy and tested at a rapid 
pace up a steep hill, and found apparently much improved in 
wind. 

On August 1 2th he was driven home, a distance of twenty 
miles, without showing signs of fatigue. On August 31st the 
owner reported the patient much improved in flesh, practically 
free from cough, almost free from respiratory difficulty when 
driven rapidly, and taking exercise work daily without fatigue 
or other difficulty. 

While our experiments were very limited in extent, and can 
be regarded only as preliminary and suggestive, some facts have 
been established which appear to us of interest. 

It has been shown that large volumes of water can not only 
be introduced slowly into and absorbed from the lungs, but that 
such quantities can be introduced into the trachea and bronchi 
at a rapid rate, if the trachea is open, and be thrown back 
through trachea, larynx, pharynx, mouth and nostrils, thor- 
oughly flushing these parts, constituting thereby our most effi- 
cient cleansing procedure. We have shown that the air pas- 
sages tolerate quite well at least one antiseptic, hydrogen per- 
oxide. 



INHALATION PNEUMONIA 



Of great interest it appears to us, is the fact that on July 
17th, during our irrigation we flushed out a large sized piece of 
necrotic tissue which must have been lodged low down in the 
bronchi. In each case we apparently cleared the bronchi, at 
least the larger ones, of any foreign matter, and we certainly are 
warranted in believing that the irrigation of the lungs exerted 
a very favorable influence on the course of the disease. 

Our efforts suggest a much wider range of usefulness. In 
accidental inhalation of drugs during drenching, it seems that 
irrigation may in safety be depended upon to wash out oils, to 
dilute and wash out such irritants as alcohol, turpentine, 
whiskey, chloral, etc., while in case of foreign bodies of consid- 
erable size, it offers us a means for their removal, quite worthy 
of a trial. It seems quite possible that good results might be 
had by this plan in such affections as pulmonary tuberculosis 
where large softening areas communicate with, and discharge 
into bronchi, and in all forms of suppurative broncho-pneumonia, 
and possibly also in extensive diphtheritic invasion of the air 
passages. 

Perhaps one of its most direct uses will be found in the pre- 
vention of inhalation pneumonia after arytenectomy, as it affords 
us not only a safe plan for thorough irrigation of the field of 
operation, but the fluid passing down the trachea into the 
bronchi flush out and destroy any pathogenic organisms which 
have been inhaled. 

We do not say that our plan, formula or rate of administra- 
tion is the best, other antiseptics may be better and other rate or 
details of administration may be far superior. 

We do not know if it is better to have a tracheal or laryn- 
geal opening or not, though the absence of a counter-opening 
might, it seems to us, lead to dangerous spasmodic closure of 
the larynx. 

The rate of administration can evidently be varied. We did 
not know at the beginning of our experiment the rate of ad- 
ministration by the experimenters quoted, and departed widely 
from their plan by introducing the liquid at a very rapid rate, 



10 W. L. WILLIAMS AND P. A. FISH. 

quite too rapid to permit of total absorption, and in that way 
learned that we could, without discomfort or injury, have it 
quickly expelled, and thus we learned by comparison with 
Colin's and Gohier's experiments that we may at our option, 
by varying the rate of administration, either have the liquid 
absorbed or rejected, or partly absorbed and in part expelled. 
At some times we apparently had 50 per cent, or over absorbed, 
though always given rather rapidly, while in other cases nearly 
all appeared to be rejected. 

We have been led to hope that in spite of the meagre ex- 
perience upon which we have based our communication, the 
facts and sugfo^estions will suffice to lead others to studv the 
plan of treatment herein outlined, with a view to developing a 
successful method of therapeutics in this heretofore baffling 
group of affections. 



[Reprinted from the American Veterinary Review, April, 1898.] 



THE AIR SAC MITE OF THE FOWL. 

Cytodites Nadus. Ger. Cytoleichiis Sarcoptoides. Meg. 

By W. L, Williams, Prof, of Surgery, New York State Veterinary 

College. 



Although the air sac mite has been studied by numerous 
European investigators at various dates since Gerlach's first de- 
scription in 1858, we have found no record of the occurrence of 
the parasite or a disease referable to it in any English-speaking 
country, and, indeed, find but a brief mention of eithei parasite 
or disease, consisting of a mere outline, by Neumann (Non- 
microbic Parasites of Domestic Animals. Translated by G. 
Fleming.) 

During my official connection with the Montana Agricultural 
Experiment Station at Bozeman, Mont., from 1893 to 1896, the 
disease was extremely prevalent, and favorable opportunity was 
offered for clinical observations, which have been augmented 
more recently by importing and cultivating the disease at this 
college. 

The malady first attracted my attention by invading some 
pure bred fowls imported from the Atlantic States to Montana 
by the Experiment Station for breeding purposes. These were 
apparently healthy at the time of their arrival, and remained so 
for three or four weeks. Their permanent quarters not being 
ready they were placed temporarily in yards where occasional 
losses of poultry had previously occurred without attracting 
special attention. By the time the permanent quarters were 
ready a serious and fatal diarrhoea had broken out among the 
turkeys, followed in a few days by a similar outbreak among the 
chickens, and, continuing to spread slowly during the summer, 
caused a loss of over 30 per cent, of the adult birds and about 
50 per cent, of the chicks. 



W. L. WILLIAMS. 



The chief symptoms of the disease were profuse diarrhoea, ex- 
treme debility, and either cyanosis or paleness of the comb. The 
post-mortem appearances consisted chiefly of a diffuse enteritis, 
the posterior bowel beino- chiefly inflamed, and co-existent with 
this there appeared on the transparent membranous walls of the 
air sacs about the intestines, numerous minute opaque appearing 
objects, which, upon examination, proved to be air sac mites. 

Inquiry being instituted, it was learned that poultry-raising 
in Montana was generally unprofitable, owing to frequent heavy 
losses, largely from a malady simulating in symptoms that which 
was engaging my attention, so that with numerous natural ad- 
vantages as to food and climate, the major portion of poultry 
and eggs consumed in the State w^as imported from a long dis- 
tance at high rates, and deteriorated in quality because of the 
long shipment. 

It was further ascertained that the monetary loss in the Gal- 
latin Valley, the most important agricultural area in the State, 
was quite as great from poultry diseases as from those of any 
other kind of domestic animals, and as far as could be learned, 
it seemed that the most serious and persistent malady of poul- 
try was that due to the air sac mite. 

The literature obtainable in other lanmiag^es indicates that 
various investigators ascribe to this parasite a considerable eco- 
nomic importance, but none of them attribute to its presence 
the gravity which it attains in Montana and perhaps some 
neighboring Rocky Mountain States. 

The disease w-as first studied by Gerlach,* who relates that 
in 1858 his attention was called to a fatal affection in a flock of 
a few more than twenty Cochin China fowls, among which in a 
short time twenty died, which upon post-mortem examination 
revealed extensive muco-enteritis and inflammation of the ovi- 
ducts, and in the bronchial tubes and their dependencies, the 
air sacs, he found numerous small mites, either solitary or in 
clumps. Although Gerlach could not directly connect the en- 
teritis with the presence of the parasites, he could find no other 



* Magazin fur die gesaramte Thierheikunde, 1859, p. 233. 



THE AIR SAC MITE OF THE FOWL. 



cause for it and concluded that they were in some manner re- 
sponsible for the fatal lesions. 

The parasite was described by Zundel * in 1864, one of 
whose clients had for a time been annoyed by a serious mortal- 
ity among his fowls, losing two or three daily, and finally asked 
Z. to determine the cause of death. 

The affected birds showed no very marked symptoms of au}^ 
common ailment, continued to eat, but became very weak, 
voiceless, their wings drooping and their combs and wattles dis- 
colored and pale as a result of anaemia. Post-mortem examina- 
tion showed moderate emaciation. The intestines were of a 
rose color, with great engorgement of the mesenteric vessels, 
while the intestinal mucous membrane was dark red, the intes- 
tine much thickened and contained a large quantity of thick, 
slimy mucous. Large quantities of the parasites were found 
free upon the walls of the air sacs within the abdomen, and, no 
other cause presenting itself to explain the fatal lesions, they 
were ascribed to the mites. 

Megninf in 1879 gave an excellent technical description of 
the parasite, failing to attach that importance to its presence in 
the bodies of fowls attributed to it by Gerlach and Zundel. 

THE CYTODITES NUDUS OR CYTOEEICHUS SARCOPTOIDES 

is more closely allied in its anatomical characters to the 
sarcoptes than to the other classes of acarina. It has for 
its chief characters a large orbicular body, convex above, 
the convexity being more abrupt from side to side than antero- 
posteriorly, giving it a tortoise-like shape ; flat below, extended 
in front by a movable rostrum, which can be largely retracted. 
It has a translucent body, varying in color and transparency by 
exposure to light and media in which it is studied. Taken 
fresh from its normal habitat, and examined under low magni- 
fication, the body seems almost wholly colorless, while the body 
contents appear as masses of pale lemon-colored oil-like drop- 



* Zundel, La Phthriasis Interne. Jour, de Med. Veterinaire, Dec, 1864. 
f Megnin, Les Acariens parasites du tissu cellulaire et des reservoires ariens chez 
I'oiseau. Jour, de L' Anatomie et de La Physiologie, 1879, p. 123. 



W. L. WILLIAMS. 



lets. The skeleton is chitinoiis, smooth and glabrous without 
visible markings on the dorsal surface except six pairs of small 
caruncles (Fig. b\ each bearing on its truncated end a small 
fine hair, the first pair on a line with the axis of the first pair of 




legs, equidistant from the margin anteriorly and from either 
side of the slight obtuse prolongation of the body from which 
the first pair of legs proceeds. The second pair is more poste- 
rior, twice the distance of the first pair from the anterior mar- 
gin and in a line wuth the notch between the rostrum and the 



THE AIR SAC MITE OF THE FOWL. 



protuberance for the first pair of legs. The third pair of bris- 
tles is located at about the same distance from the body- margin 
a's the second and almost in a line with the axis of the second 
pair of legs, while the fourth pair is located backwards and out- 
wards from the latter, almost midway between the second and 
third pairs of legs ; the fifth pair almost marginal at a point 
equidistant between the third and fourth legs, while the sixth 
pair occurs near the margin, one-third the distance from the 
fourth leg toward the anus. On the ventral surface (Figs, a 
and c) two pairs of hairs are found, one between the epimera of 
the first two pairs, the other between those of the fourth and 
fifth pairs of legs. 

The rostrum (Fig. g) which can be almost wholly retracted 
within the camerostoma is conical with a rounded extremity 
pierced in its centre by a circular opening. The mandibles and 
maxillae are not distinct, but fused together to form a tube end- 
ing anteriorly in the circular opening. Dorsally (Fig. U) the 
rostrum offers no markings, while ventrally (Figs, a^ <r, g) there 
is seen a dark line beginning centrally at the base by a sharp 
point gradually widening for one-third the rostral length, where 
it divides into two lines diverging at an acute angle to end on 
either side of the circular opening, at which point it is joined at 
an acute angle by a second similar line extending along the 
margin backward to the base. Within the triangular space 
between the circular opening of the oral tube, and the two first 
mentioned lines is a double tessellated organ of five articles 
apparently representing the maxillary palpi and forming the 
lower lip. No mouth organs capable of biting or penetrating 
tissues are discernible, the parasite feeding by sucking up the 
liquid secretions of the membranes which it infests. 

The legs are of medium length ; large, conical and strong, 
with five distinct articles terminated by a pedunculated retrac- 
tile ambulacrum (Figs, e and b) which is cylindrical, ending 
in a campanulated sucker ; the anterior two pairs almost margi- 
nal ; the first pair directed almost straight forwards, close along- 
side the rostrum, bears on the external margin of the trochanter 



6 W. L. WILLIAMS. 



a short bristle directed outward and forward, while at the tarsus 
at the base of the ambulacral sucker, there at times appears to 
be another hair or projection which is probably rather a folding 
of the chitinous covering of the foot. Tlic second pair of legs 
(Fig. b) shows in addition to these hairs, an elongated retractile 
spur, pointing upwards and backwards from the tarsus, at right 
angles with it, about as long, though not as thick, as the ambu- 
lacrum. The epimera of the first pair unite on the median 
line to form a triangular sternite ; the apex directed backwards, 
the base occupied by the rostrum. The epimera of the second 
pair are free and slightly arched or sinuous. The two posterior 
pairs of legs are large, glabrous and almost as strong as the two 
anterior pairs, their epimera free and arched, the convexity 
being forwards, and each showing near its base a short spur-like 
projection, extending forwards ; the coxse very large, globular. 
Anus hypo-marginal. 

The ovigerous female (Figs, a and b) varies in size from 
.45 to .66 m.m. long, and .38 to .55 m.m. wide. The vulva is 
between the epimera of the tw^o last pairs of legs, extending for- 
ward almost to the epimera of the second pair, and consists of a 
longitudinal cleft, wider in front than behind, and furnished on 
either side at its anterior third with a short obtuse prolongation 
inclined backwards and outward like the barbs of a harpoon. 

Within the transparent body there is always observable two 
to twelve ova in various stages of development, one to six or 
seven of w^hich contain six-legged larvae (FiRS. b and d)^ the legs 
readily distinguishable folded on the ventral surface of the 
body. By slight pressure on the cover glass the larvae can be 
pressed out of the female and show after their extrusion ener- 
getic movements. 

The parasite deposits no eggs, but gives birth to living 
young, is ovo-viviparous, and the extreme variations in size, as 
noted above, are due to the number of ova contained wuthin the 
body. 

The male is .45 to .50 m.m. long, and .2^^ m.m. wide, pre- 
senting on the middle of the ventral surface a well-marked 



THE AIR SAC MITE OF THE FOWL. 



sternite with a transverse guard at its anterior end. Penis be- 
tween the epimera of last hind legs and anus, extending over 
half this distance, conical in form, and bearing near its base an 
obtuse semicircular sternite. The young non-gravid female is 
distinguished from the male by the absence of genitals, copula- 
tion being effected through the anus, as in most acaria. The 
nympha and octopod larvae differ in appearance from the non- 
gravid female only in size, no genital system, either male or fe- 
male, being yet developed. 

According to Alegnin, the six-footed larva is rarely seen, as 
it quickly moults. We have failed to find it except in the body 
of the gravid female. 

The Cytoleichus Sarcoptoides has its chief habitat in the air 
sacs of the gallinacese, especially in the common fowl. They 
have not been found outside the body nor in other parts than 
the air sacs and their communications : the lungs, bronchi and 
hollow bones. By reason of their comparatively large size they 
are readily discovered by the unaided eye, being observed upon 
the thin pellucid walls of the air sacs as small white particles, 
like grains of fine meal. At times, they are found somewhat 
widely scattered ; generally they tend to collect in groups. 
Soon after the death of the fowl and opening of the body, they 
tend to congregate in clumps within the deeper and darker re- 
cesses of the air sacs behind the kidneys, etc. Although they 
can in some cases be found in the hollow bones which com- 
municate with the air sacs, and in the bronchial tubes, they are 
not as a rule so readily found in these parts, and but rarely 
exist there in great numbers. They are readily picked up from 
the air sac walls on the point of a knife or needle, or easily 
washed off with a stream of water. They exhibit no power of 
attaching themselves to the walls of the sacs beyond that re- 
quired to maintain their body weight. Neither do they possess 
the power of firmly attaching themselves to each other. 
Though they congregate in groups in the cadaver of the dead 
bird or when floating on a liquid, yet they are readily drawn 
apart, and unlike many acaria they do not appear to become 



8 W. L. WILLIAMS. 



firmly attached to each other during copulation, so that we 
have failed to observe the copulatory process. 

These observations, in connection with the anatomical char- 
acters of the parasite, fully support Megnin in his opinion that 
prior observers had erred in attributing to the mites serious 
mechanical irritations, though failing, in our judgment, to war- 
rant him in concludinor that thev do not cause serious and fatal 
disease. It is evident that in their usual habitat and with their 
anatomical structure their sustenance must be derived from the 
liquids secreted by the membrane upon which they congregate 
and sucked up by the aid of their tubular mouth parts. 

The parasite seems peculiarly erratic in its appearance under 
the microscope, so that the details given by no two authors con- 
sulted fully agree with each other nor with those here given. Ger- 
lach figures and describes an acarus wholly nude, both in body and 
legs, while Railliet (Neumann's Parasitesof Domestic Animals, pp. 
243-4) figures a nude body, but with the two anterior pairs of legs 
bearing small, almost transverse, hair-like elevations, in length 
almost as great as the thickness of the leg. Megnin adds sev- 
eral hair-like projections emanating from little elevations on 
both the dorsal and ventral sides of the body, figures the same 
hair-like projections on the two anterior pairs of legs noted by 
Railliet, and adds to the second pair of legs, at the middle of 
the last joint, a large spur pointing backwards, two-thirds as 
long as the ambulacrum and almost as thick, while Zurn, in his 
*' Diseases of Poultry," p. 62, figures the bristles on the body, 
omits those on the extremity except that in the place of the 
prominent spur figured by Megnin he figures a tapering bristle 
almost double the length of that spur. It is not at present 
possible to fully explain these discrepancies in figures and de- 
scriptions. They do agree sufficiently in all essential particulars 
to make it evident that each had to do with the same parasite. 

Although we assume that in passing from one fowl to 
another the parasite must for a time live outside the body, its 
discovery in a free state has not been recorded. Left in the 
body of a dead fowl in a room at a temperature of 70° P., it 



THE AIR SAC MITE OF THE FOWL. 9 



lives for four or five days, if protected by the tissues from desic- 
cation. Placed in a normal salt solution, the parasites quickly 
cluster together in an intricate mass and either remain swim- 
ming on top of the solution, or descend to the bottom of the 
vessel, in either position keeping up almost constant movements 
of the feet and rostra, without appreciable change in the loca- 
tion of the clump. If one be separated from the cluster it usu- 
ally rejoins it promptly. In this condition they live and remain 
apparently quite vigorous in a room at about 70° F. for a period 
of five to eight days. They appear to be quite indifferent as to 
whether submerged in water or floating on its surface. Re- 
moved from moisture, they quickly dessicate and die. 

There is great variation of opinion among the different 
observers as to their power to cause serious disease. 

Gerlach and Zundel were alike positive that they caused 
serious losses among the poultry of their clients, while Megnin 
and others are as certain that the former were in error and that 
it is only possible for them to do great harm when collecting in 
great masses and blocking up the air passages ; a very rare 
occurrence. 

Gerlach thought the enteritis he observed was most likely 
due to migrations of some immature or larval form boring its 
w^ay through the tissues, but Megnin very properly states that 
this cannot be, as the mouth tissues are tubular, that the para- 
site can only suck up fluids about it and is utterly incompetent 
to burrow in or through the tissues. When it is remembered 
also that the entire development of the parasite from ovum to 
six legged young, can be watched in the body of the female, in 
which state, if not in its eight-legged form, it is born with mouth 
parts like the adult, it is evident that we see the entire life cycle 
of the mite and that at no date in its history is it able to 
burrow or bite ; and since the body and extremities are practi- 
cally free from any hairs or projections capable of inducing any 
severe wounds or abrasions, it must be admitted, as Megnin 
states, that no serious results should follow their presence in so 
far as mechanical irritation is concerned. 



10 W. L. WILLIAMS. 



Holzendorff* alone of all authors consulted states that he 
has found these parasites buried in the liver, kidneys or other 
tissues, but while he denominates the parasite Cytoleichus Sar- 
coptoides he neither figures nor describes it and it seems very 
improbable that he really had to do with the mite in question. 

Although I am unable to define the manner, I am neverthe- 
less thoroughly convinced with Gerlach and Zundel that they do 
produce disease and death. Like Gerlach and Zundel I have 
made numerous autopsies on fowls in which there could be 
nothing discovered to account for disease or death except these 
parasites. 

Making a great number of autopsies on any and all affected 
fowls available for a period of one and one-half years some have 
been found which were quite free from this parasite but showed 
lesions which would clearly account for their ill health or death, 
others revealed more or less numerous mites along with a variety 
of lesions which could not with our present knowledge be attrib- 
uted to the presence of the parasites, while in most of the birds 
examined no cause other than the immense numbers of cyto- 
dites could be assigned. 

The symptoms of disease observed in those cases where no 
other evident cause than the presence of these parasites could be 
detected before or after death, while not wholly uniform, were 
quite as much so as could be expected when we consider the 
area over which the mites may be distributed and the variable 
symptoms possible for their location. Most constant and prom- 
inent of all symptoms was the profuse diarrhoea, the faeces 
being thin, yellowish-white, apparently granular, and very glu- 
tinous, adhering to the feathers about the anal opening in large 
masses. At the same time the bird becomes dull, drooping and 
feeble, although retaining a fair appetite and in some cases 
remaining fat until far advanced in the disease. The plumage 
gradually loses its lustre, becomes dirty, ragged looking, and 
much dishevelled. If the bird is left to itself it may move about 
fairly well, but if forced to run it quickly becomes exhausted, 

* Archives fiir wissenschaftliche und praktische Thierheilkunde. B. ii. p. 304. 



THE AIR SAC MITE OF THE FOWL. 11 

its breathing becomes quick and labored, the month being held 
wide open. The comb and wattles show marked but \'ariable 
changes, becoming either very dark blue, cyanotic, chiefly in fat 
fowls, as a mark of asphyxia, or of a pale whitish color in the 
poorer ones, as a result of extreme anaemia. In all cases these 
parts are much reduced in size, as they are essentially sexual 
attributes, and diminish in size with the decadence of sexual 
powers, which supervenes early in the affection. 

In adult birds it usually runs a somewhat chronic course, 
extending over several days, not infrequently two or three weeks, 
and in some cases a like number of months. In some cases 
there may be remissions of the disease, continuing severely for 
some days or weeks, then abating for a time, to almost surely 
appear later. It is fatal in nearly every case. Birds two months 
to one year old are rarely attacked, but well-marked cases have 
been observed. Sex has an apparently well-marked influence, 
so that while the disease existed in the Experimental Station 
yards it was almost impossible to keep breeding cocks, and so 
far as I can learn these suffer most. 

Breed has little influence, the heavy Asiatic varieties appar- 
ently suffering somewhat more severely. The disease occurs 
chiefly during rainy months, either in fall or spring. 

The post-mortem appearances vary somewhat, but are char- 
acterized chiefly by enteritis and peritonitis. 

The enteritis is of a disseminated character, extending 
throughout the greater extent of the intestines, but affecting 
most intensely the posterior portions of the bowels, the mucous 
membrane suffering chiefly, extending to the other intestinal 
coats if the enteritis is very severe. The mucous membrane is 
swollen, reddened and gives a general injected appearance to 
the entire affected bowel. The intestinal contents in the in- 
flamed portions are thin, yellow or yellowish white, and stringy. 
The mucous membrane is covered over with a considerable 
amount of slimy mucous. 

The peritonitis, when present, is diffuse, the peritoneum of a 
reddish or dirty gray color, the peritoneal cavity more or less 



12 W. L. WILLIAMS. 



filled with a dirty brownish serosity, usually turbid. This peri- 
tonitis does not appear to be a sequel to the enteritis by ex- 
tension of the inflammatory process through the intestinal walls, 
but rather the direct effect of the same factor which induces the 
enteritis. The liver is usually somewhat enlarged and pale in 
color. The heart, kidneys, gizzard and anterior portions of 
digestive canal are normal. The lungs are in some cases in- 
flamed and hepatized ; the bronchi, too, are not seldom the seat 
of some irritation, causing a mucous discharge from the 
nostrils. 

To these we add the actual presence of the parasites in great 
numbers in the air sacs and their dependencies. They are so 
large as to be readily recognized by the unaided eye if a proper 
search be made. They are found chiefly in the air sacs within 
the abdomen, and are readily seen as small, partly transparent, 
glistening, white or yellowish white globular bodies like fine 
grains of meal, adhering either singly or in groups almost count- 
less, to the fine, thin, transparent bladder-like walls of the air 
reservoirs ; more readily still are they seen upon the smooth, 
dark surface of the liver or kidneys, the dark background mak- 
ing the white parasite conspicuous. The parasite is readily 
lifted from its position on the point of a knife or pin, and can 
be examined on a piece of glass or a smooth black surface, where, 
if watched, its movements may be observed without the aid of a 
microscope. 

CASES. 

No. I. A two-year-old partridge Cochin hen, property of the 
Experiment Station, became unwell early in March, 1895, was 
noticed to be somewhat dull, laid no eggs, her comb became a 
dark bluish purple, as though the bird was partly asphyxiated, 
the anal feathers were matted together with yellowish, glutinous, 
stringy, diarrhoeic fceces. If made to move, she at once began 
to breathe rapidly and heavily, the mouth being held wide open 
to facilitate respiration. 

The hen was destroyed April 5th by bleeding and an au- 
topsy made at once. The body was found voy fat. All inter- 



THE AIR SAC MITE OF THE FOWL. 13 

nal organs were found healthy so far as could be determined by 
a careful seriatim inspection except the lower portion of the 
bowel, which was inflamed and contained a thin, yellowish, 
flaky fluid. The air sacs and their dependencies were thickly 
infested with cytodites. 

No. 2. A partridge Cochin hen, same age and lot as No. i, 
with identical history as to date and symptoms. Weight at time 
of killing 9 pounds. Killed by bleeding. All internal organs 
found healthy except muco-enteritis of the lower intestine. 
Cytodites were in countless numbers in the various air sacs. 
Like No. i, No. 2 was excessively fat when destroyed, but did 
not lay before being killed nor did the condition of the ovary 
indicate early laying. 

Case No. 5. Brown Leghorn cock, aged two years, imported 
from ^Massachusetts, March, 1894. During the breeding season 
of 1894 he was mated with six hens, during 1895 w^ith ten. He 
was well cared for, had ample food, both in quantity and variety, 
wnth abundant range, and free access to clean running spring 
water, and had been apparently in perfect health at all times 
until July, 1895, when it was noted that his comb had an ab- 
normal hue, being somewhat purplish or bluish, his plumage 
losing at the same time to a degree its usual lustre, yet he ap- 
peared lively and associated with the hens as usual. The hens 
were laying well, but the eggs, which showed an average fertil- 
ity during the spring, began to decline in fertility and early in 
July became almost sterile, indicating a loss of sexual powers. 
From this time the symptoms of disease increased steadily, the 
comb and w^attles gradually becoming a pale blue, then a pale 
bluish white, and gradually decreasing in size to one-tenth 
their normal proportions. The plumage gradually lost its lustre, 
became ragged, dishevelled to an extreme degree. General 
weakness, with emaciation, became apparent and the bird ceased 
to accompany his mates, but remained apart from them, list- 
less, inattentive to surroundings. 

During the entire course of the disease there were observed 
no signs of diarrhoea. On October 8, 1895, the disease had pro- 



14 W. L. WILLIAMS. 



gressed so far that the bird was scarcely able to walk, the pluin- 
age was devoid of lustre, the bird wasted to a mere skeleton, the 
comb and wattles pale, bloodless, shrunken, respiration quick- 
ened, difficult and accompanied by a rattling noise. 

The bird was killed by bleeding. The autopsy revealed an 
exceedingly emaciated, anaemic body; the body cavity contained 
a quantity of a thickish dirty gray pap-like fluid. The mesen- 
tery showed numerous dark, almost black spots one-eighth to 
one-fourth inches diameter. Everywhere in the air sacs were 
found many cytodites ; the surface of the liver, kidneys and pel- 
vis were thickly dotted over with the parasites. The right 
lung was inflamed throughout and the greater portion of its tis- 
sue firmly hepatized. The bronchi were highly inflamed and 
filled with a tough white mucous in which living cytodites 
swarmed, penetrating into the smallest bronchioles traceable 
with the naked eye. The parasites were also found in the 
scapulo-humeral extension of the air sac. Testicles were greatly 
atrophied, being as small as an ordinary peanut. 

Case No. 6. Cytodites Nudus, associated with the lesions 
apparently not due to their presence. Subject property of W. 
E., a small grade Plymouth Rock hen, one or two years old, had 
been ailing for some weeks, was emaciated, dull, weak, and on 
the morning of October 2 2d was found unconscious and ap- 
parently dying. One eye contained a chaff surrounded by a 
diphtheric membrane. After bleeding, an autopsy revealed 
great numbers of cytodites in the air sacs. The liver enormously 
enlarged, weighing 93 grammes, mottled chocolate and dirty 
yellow in color, and contracting numerous adhesions to the con- 
tiguous organs. A small blood clot was present and attached to the 
.surface of the supero-internal face of the left lobe of liver and a 
similar clot near the entrance of the vena porta, indicating 
recent hepatic haemorrhages. Spleen enlarged, oblong, weigh- 
ing 60 grammes, red and yellow mottled. 

From this hen were taken living parasites, which were used 
in experimental transmission in cases 7 and 8. 

Case No. 7. Attempted transplantation of cytodites from in- 



THE AIR SAC MITE OF THE FOWL. 15 

fested to supposedly healthy chick, by means of introduction of 
the living parasites into the air sacs. 

Subject, an apparently healthy incubator chick which had 
not been in contact with other than incubator chicks and on 
premises supposed to be free from cytodites. 

On Oct. 23, 1895, twelve living parasites from Case 6 were 
introduced into the air sacs of the experiment bird by means of 
intercostal incision as for caponizing. The subject was then 
kept apart from other birds except No. 8, and in quarters sup- 
posedly free from parasites. No symptoms of disease developed 
and after an interval of forty-seven days (December 9th) the 
chick was killed by bleeding and the autopsy revealed a few 
cytodites in varying stages of development, including young 
mites and pregnant females. No trace of pathological lesions 
was discovered. 

Case No. 8. Experimental transmission of cytodites to 
healthy chick by laryngeal injection. Incubator chick with 
history of No. 7. About twelve living mites from No. 6^ 
suspended in water, were injected through larynx into trachea, 
and chick cared for as No. 7, without the occurrence of signs of 
ill health other than those attributed to close confinement. 

Autopsy November 6, 1896. No cytodites could be found, 
and no pathological lesions distinguishable. 

Case No. 9. A one-year-old partridge Cochin hen, property 
of Experimental Station. Noted unwell about December 1 5, 1 895, 
being very weak, dull, rapid emaciation, quickened and diffi- 
cult breathing, and feathers much soiled, well marked diarrhoea 
present, the faeces thin, pale yellowish, stringy. Killed by 
bleeding, December 26, 1895. Autopsy : Diffuse enteritis, 
right anterior diaphragmatic air sac contained about 500 cyto- 
dites, right posterior diaphragmatic about 200, right abdominal 
sac 4 oz. of a pale yellowish serosity, slightly turbid. The air 
sacs on left side were not examined for some hours, when but a 
few parasites were found in them. No further pathological 
lesions were observed. 

Case No. 10. A brown Leghorn hen, aged three and one- 



16 . W, L. WILLIAMS. 



half years, property of Experiment Station, procured in ]\Iassa- 
chusetts in 1894, and was apparently well until about December 
15, 1895, when she appeared dull, inattentive to surroundings, 
comb bluish in color, the anal plumage clean, but there was a 
well-marked diarrhoea present, the fccces being thin, stringy 
and pale yellow, emaciation marked. Killed January 3, 1896. 

The abdominal and diaphragmatic air sacs were found to be 
filled with cytodites. Left abdominal sac contained a patch of 
calcareous deposit, white and opaque, about three-fourths inch 
in area. No further pathological lesions found. 

The geographical distribution of the disease is not well 
known. It has been recognized in various parts of Europe, but 
so far as we know has not heretofore been recorded in America. 
It is, or was, highly prevalent in the Gallatin and Madison 
valleys in jNIontana, where it constituted a serious scourge to 
poultry, being more or less prevalent in nearly all poultry 
yards, and when not inducing evident illness or death resulted 
in a loss of vigor, the hens ceasing to lay eggs, the cocks be- 
coming sterile and external and internal genitals atrophied. 

I also observed the disease in a serious form in the Snake 
River Valley near Idaho Falls, Idaho, and am led to believe 
that it is widely disseminated in the Rocky Mountain States. 

In those localities w^here the malady was observed, the alti- 
tude ranges from 4000 to 6000 feet above sea level, with a very 
low degree of humidity. No reason appeared to indicate that 
the great altitude had any influence in the existence of the 
disease, and the experimental transmission of the parasites to 
healthy fowls at this college and the rapid increase of the mites 
thereby, indicates that if the parasite does not prevail in other 
parts of the country it is more probably due to a failure of in- 
troduction than to climatic conditions. 

The natural mode of transmission is unknown, but it can, 
so far as we can see, only occur by the entrance of the mite 
through the nostrils after they have first escaped or been ex- 
pelled from the affected bird by sneezing or coughing. There 
being generally a discharge of mucous from the nostrils of af- 



THE AIR SAC MITE OF THE FOWL. 17 

fected birds, this would facilitate the escape or expulsion of the 
parasites. Experimentally the parasites are readily transplanted 
and multiply rapidly. For this purpose we make an incision 
between the last two ribs as if for caponizing and introduce the 
parasites in salt solution b}^ means of a dropper. 

The constantly increasing importance of our poultry in- 
dustry suggests the need of a more extended study of this 
parasite. It seems possible that at any time the parasite may 
attain a wide and serious distribution in various parts of the 
United States, and that poultry breeders should consequently be 
on their guard. 

No treatment of a reliable kind has yet been found, and in 
fact in the present state of our knowledge any attempt at indi- 
vidual treatment is dangerous except in properly controlled ex- 
periments. Like other maladies due to the invasion of numer- 
ous animal parasites, an apparently sound bird may conceal in- 
numerable mites and act thereby as a centre of infection in new 
flocks into which it may come. 

The only profitable measures at present consist in the exter- 
mination of affected flocks and the careful disinfection of houses 
and yards. So far as we are able to judge, the killing of all 
birds in the flock, thorough cleansing of habitations and leaving 
them unoccupied for perhaps ninety days, affords our safest and 
most economical means for eradication. The refilling of poultry 
yards offers a renewal of danger which may be effectively met 
by the use of the incubator. This appliance, whatever may be 
said of its demerits and eccentricities, constitutes the poultry 
raisers safe, convenient and impassable barrier against this, as 
well as numerous other dangerous parasites. This method does 
not involve a complete change in stock and the throwing away 
of valuable results already attained in breeding. The eggs for 
artificial incubation may be safely taken from the infected flock, 
hatched and kept widely apart from the old birds, until when 
enough have been obtained the parent stock is destroyed, their 
habitations disinfected and the fresh uncontaminated young 
stock ot the same lineage is ready to take their places. 



THE AIR SAC MITE OF THE FOWL. 



EXPLANATION OF FIGURES. 

a. Ovigerous female, ventral surface. 

b. Ovigerous female, showing ova, one of which shows a 
well-developed larva. 

c. Male, ventral surface. 

d. Six-legged larva, extruded by pressure from body of fe- 
male. 

e. Foot with ambulacrum withdrawn. 

f. Foot with ambulacrum extended and spur delineated. 

g. Rostrum seen from ventral surface. 



CA^TDAL MYECTOMY VS. CLITORIDECTOMY. 



By W. L. Wii<i.iams. 
From the American Veterinary Review, May, i8g8. Pp. 90-g4. 



Various accounts appear in current veterinary literature, from time, 
to time, of the successful treatment of vicious mares by the removal of 
the clitoris. It is well known that many, or in fact practically all, of 
these vicious mares, when kicking or balking, tend to concomitantly 
switch the tail violently, urinate repeatedly, open and close the vulva 
rapidly, projecting and withdrawing the clitoris, and in general showing 
signs which suggest undue sexual excitement. 

Apparently regarding this female penis as the seat of important sex- 
ual functions, operators have removed it in lieu of castration, though it 
is known that such animals continue to menstruate and breed as if noth- 
ing had occurred, and 3'et it is claimed that its removal subdues or amel- 
orates the vice. 

Being skeptical upon the question, two cases have entered the college 
clinic which may suggest a new view of the modus operandi of the 
removal of the clitoris, because in these two cases the viciousness was 
removed without recourse to genital surgery. 

Case I. — A small, rugged, common-bred, aged mare, which had 
acquired the vice of gripping the reins with the tail, followed by kick- 
ing, urinating, etc., and running away, becoming wholly unmanagea- 
ble, except by tying the tail securely to harness or thill. 

The base of each depressor muscle was separately dissected out and 
cut away for a distance of five inches. The tail w^as dressed daily until 
healed, when it was found that the patient had lost her viciousness along 
with the gripping of the reins. 

Case II. — A well-bred trotting mare, used for butcher's delivery, had 
contracted vicious habits, like the previous case, and had finally become 
unmanageable after one year's annoyance and danger to the driver. 

This animal would constantly try to kick whenever she could catch 
the rein or when the breeching would press against her in going down 
hill, the kicking being accompanied by switching the tail and urination. 



Placed upon the operating table she was treated the same as the pre- 
vious animal b}- student L., and being released was immediately hitched 
to the wagon and has been kept daily at work without any suggestion 
of vice. 

We have observed equally prompt subsidence of vice in geldings 
after this operation. 

The technique of our operation is extremely simple : the animal be- 
ing secured in the lateral recumbent position and the necessary antisep- 
tic precautions taken, an elastic bandage is applied firmly from the apex 
upward to the base of the tail in order to render it bloodless, a tourni- 
quet of pure gum tubing affixed closely to the base of the tail, the com- 
pression bandage removed and the operation field rendered aseptic. 

The tail being sharply flexed dorsally by an assistant, a linear incis- 
ion is made over each depressor coccygeus muscle midway between the 
ischio-coccygeus and inferior median line beginning close against 
the tourniquet and extending for about five inches towards the apex 
of the tail, severing the skin and caudal aponeurosis, exposing the 
nmscle. The latter is readil}' separated from its enveloping apon- 
eurosis either with the blade or handle of the scalpel, the envelope 
being lifted from the muscle with a tenaculum or retractor. A small 
probe-pointed bistoury is next inserted at the base of the incision on 
either side of the muscle and the latter completely severed. The dissec- 
tion is now completed by cutting away the vertebral attachments of the 
nmscle down to the distal end of the initial incision, where it is excised 
in the same manner as at the base. 

The prolongation of the ischio-coccygeus is left intact. The mus- 
cles removed, the cavities remaining are lampouaded with cotton or 
gauze of the form and size of the muscle removed, sutures being 
omitted. The tampon may be asceptic, or, as we use it, antiseptic, being 
saturated with i to looo sublimate solution, a pad of cotton saturated in 
the same solution spread over the wounds and the tail firmly bandaged, 
the tornuiquet being removed after the bandaging has been completed as 
well up to it as possible. 

The removal of the tourniquet is the signal for rather profuse haem- 
orrhage, which quickly subsides. The haemorrhage appearing so quickly 
serves to eliminate any irritation from the sublimate within the wound. 
The bandage is removed after 24 hours and fresh dressing applied and in 
48 hours the bandage and tampon may be omitted and the wounds 
treated once or twice daily with antiseptics. By omitting the use of the 
crupper the animal can readily continue its work without interruption. 
Care being taken to make the two sections of equal length, the symmetry 
of the tail is not changed except it is carried somewhat higher. The 
preserved ischio-coccygeus serves to prevent any undue elevation of the 
tail. 

As we know of no essential bond of sympathy between the tail and 



^ 



genitals we can scarce!}' assume that the niyotom}' has effected a cure 
through the medium of the reproductive system. 

We are led to think it possible, if not probable, that the education 
given an animal, by securing it fixedly and performing a painful opera- 
tion in a region about which it has been previously viciously irritable and 
is now powerless to evade or resent the pain, plays an important part in 
the eradication of the vice. If this be true, we should in these opera- 
tions discard general or local anaesthesia entirely and secure the animal 
in the most immovable and helpless manner, yet safeguarded against 
physical injury, which is in our judgment best attained by use of the 
operating table 

Having attempted but the one operation we cannot of course essay 
to compare the two, though we believe the caudal myotoni}- has a wider 
application, being available in geldings. At the same time it wholly 
removes the power of gripping the reins and renders the tail far more 
readily handled in every way. Being bloodless, the operation is very 
easy and can be carried out perfectly by any one acquainted with the de- 
tails and in location can be more readily kept asceptic than can the oper- 
ation wound after the removal of the clitoris, though either is not im- 
portant from the standpoint of infection. It is not intended to suggest 
that caudal myotomy can properly replace spaying in cases where the 
latter is indicated. 



/ 



[Reprinted from the American Veterinary Review, June, 1898. J 



INTERESTING CASES 

FROM THE SURGICAL AND OBSTETRIC CLINIC, 
NEW YORK STATE VETERINARY COLLEGE. 

By W. L. Williams, Prof, of Surgery, etc. 



TREATMENT OF FRACTURES IN BIRDS BY RUBBER ADHESIVE 

PLASTER. 

(962) Patient, a white Leghorn hen, set. i year, had in some 
unknown manner received a complete simple fracture of the 
metatarsus at the commencement of the lower third. Displace- 
ment and mobility were well marked and prohibited the bearing 
of any weight upon the affected member. 

The materials generally applied for the fixation of fractures 
being too bulky and heavy for so small a patient, recourse was 
had to the commercial rubber adhesive plaster. A strip of 
plaster ^ inch wide was gently warmed and applied directly to 
the foot for a sufficient distance on either side of the fracture, in 
the form of a spiral bandage, each turn overlapping the pre- 
ceding. 

The plaster secured complete and permanent fixation, was 
easily and quickly applied, highly presentable in appearance, 
and gave the greatest possible comfort and ease of movement to 
the patient. The hen began using the leg naturally after a few^ 
hours, and although permitted the freedom of the poultry yard 
regardless of moisture, the bandage remained securely in sitti 
until after the fracture had reunited. 

AMPUTATION OF THE POSTERIOR UEG OF A SOW. 

(583) Patient, a sow of common breed, had four weeks previ- 
ously given birth to eight pigs, which she was still suckling. 
A few hours before being presented at the clinic she had been 
attacked by a bulldog and the right tarsus severely mangled, 
the bones of the tarsus being separated from each other and 



W. L. WILLIAMS. 



from the tibia, fibula and metatarsals, the foot being held to the 
leg chiefly by the posterior tendons and ligaments, the wounds 
being thoroughly befouled with dirt. 

Other treatment than amputation was evidently useless, and 
accordingly the patient was chloroformed, the limb disinfected, 
and owing to serious mangling in the inferior tibial region am- 
putation was made by student K. just beneath the head of the 
tibia. Two lateral flaps were prepared, the chief arteries ligated, 
the tibia and fibula were sawed through, the flaps sutured care- 
fully, the patient was reloaded into a wagon and returned at 
once to the owner's premises and placed with her pigs. 

On the following day the patient appeared dull, but the 
wound looked clean, was free from swelling and no injury had 
occurred to cause hsemorrhage. 

On the fourth day the owner reported slight swelling of the 
stump and the tearing out of one or two sutures, but the patient 
was brighter, feeding and caring for her pigs, and was moving 
about some. 

On the eighth day the patient was running about on three 
legs without apparent great inconvenience, and in 15 da3's the 
wound was practically healed, the sow in good health and flesh 
and caring for her brood of pigs apparently none the worse for 
the injury and loss of a leg. 

CASTRATION OF CRYPTORCHIAL BOARS. 

(420) Patient, a boar pig, set. 4 weeks, both testes retained 
within the peritoneal cavity. Securing the pig on the right 
side with anterior part of body depressed, an opening was 
made by student F. in the left flank as if for spaying, the 
index finger introduced and the left testis grasped, withdrawn 
from the abdomen and excised, the finger again introduced, 
passing between the abdomnial floor and intestinal mass until 
the right testis was encountered and removed in the same man- 
ner as the left. 

(421) A boar pig of same age as 420, monorchid, the normal 
testis having been removed by the owner. The abdominal 
testis was removed by student M. in same manner as 420. 



INTERESTING CASES. 3 



(432) A four weeks boar pig with right testis retained in 
abdomen, operated upon by student H. in same manner as pre- 
ceding. 

(171) A Chester white boar, aet. about 8 months and weigh- 
ing about 200 pounds, both testes entirely retained within ab- 
domen. Operation through left flank, the size of patient 
requiring the introduction of the entire hand into the abdomen 
in order to reach the right testis. Both testes were normal in 
size but soft and flabby. All four were castrated without 
anaesthesia, the abdominal incision was closed by skin sutures 
only, usual antiseptic precautions were observed and all re- 
covered promptly without incident. 

HYDROPS AMNII IN A COW. 

(556) Occurring almost solely in the cow hydrops amnii 
presents an interesting problem in etiology, being so far with- 
out explanation. 

The patient in question was a Holstein cow of medium size, 
7 months pregnant, and had apparently gone well until 14 days 
prior to examination the owner noted unusual distension of the 
abdomen and w^as led to suspect twin pregnancy. She had not 
been grained but had plenty of grass and fodder and was in fair 
condition, and believing twin pregnancy to exist and parturition 
nearing, the owner began feeding a moderate amount of grain. 
The abdomen continuing to enlarge the owner became sus- 
picious and gave one pound mag. sulph. without producing any 
change in the constantly increasing abdominal tension, the 
patient finally becoming unable to rise without assistance, 
though when up looked bright and ate and drank normally. 
Her inability to rise seemed more due to the excessive intra- 
abdominal weight than to any weakness of the patient. 

Being called to examine the patient it lequired the aid of 
six men to get her on her feet, when she stood and walked well, 
though as if overloaded. Percussion and rectal exploration re- 
vealed hydrops amnii, and a trocar passed into the amnion 
through the right flank showed the fluid to be perfectly color- 
less and odorless, as usually observed in these cases. Twenty 



W. L. WILLIAMS. 



gallons of it were allowed to run out through the canula. The 
OS uteri was dilated, the membranes ruptured and the fluid left 
free to escape, the patient being now left for 24 hours, hoping 
there would be sufficient gradual dilatation of os to permit of 
easy extraction of the foetus, which was at the date of examina- 
tion still alive and vigorous in its movements. 

On the following day the patient could rise with less assis- 
tance and had shown some slight labor pains ; the os was 
moderately dilated, the foetus dead and emphysematous and 
required considerable force for its extraction, after which the 
cow seemed much exhausted. A stimulant was administered, 
and the patient placed in comfortable quarters. Although much 
of the amniotic fluid had escaped through the os, a great deal 
remained, the long continued over distension having apparently 
produced uterine paralysis. 

Three hours after removal of the fcetus the cow died from 
exhaustion. 

The autopsy showed a very thin chorion and uterus, the 
body of which was practically obliterated, the hydrops having 
been confined to the two cornua. 

This change in relation between uterus and cornua consti- 
tuted an interesting feature in the case. When dilating the os 
at the time of the first examination, directly in front of the os, 
centrally located and perpendicular, was a thin band, the nature 
of which we failed to determine. The autopsy showed this to be 
the point of juncture between the two cornua which instead of 
being located several inches in front of the os intern, as in the non 
gravid or normal gravid uterus, was in direct contact with the os. 
The uterus was intact in every part except slight lacerations 
at the cornual juncture, which, however, were of no significance. 
There were no notable deviations from the normal observed 
in any organs, except the large flaccid uterus. 

In a herd of 10 dairy cows the owner had lost one previous 
to the case here recorded, undoubtedly of the same affection and 
but two days prior to our visit. 

The results in this case indicate that the proper method to 



INTERESTING CASES. 



pursue, is to complete at once the dilatation of the os and evac- 
uation of the uterine contents by physical force, and not leave 
this to be accomplished by labor pains after rupturing- the mem- 
branes. Such a plan involves much time, labor, and patience, 
as the cow's os is so firm that it can not be rapidly nor easily 
dilated, but the uterine walls having been so over distended 
lose their power and fail to accomplish the purpose sought, 
while the flaccidity and fluidity tend to rapid and intense 
infection, with death of the foetus and absorption of toxic sub- 
stances. 

Siphoning out the fluid after rupturing the membranes 
would doubtless aid in relieving the uterus and possibly aid it 
in contracting upon the foetus. After the foetus is properly se- 
cured by cords it would seem that the recumbent posture would 
be best for delivery, facilitating the exit of fluids and also the 
foetus from the paralyzed uterus. 

ASCITES IN A PREGNANT EWE. 

(858.) An aged Shropshire ewe at full term of pregnancy had 
for some weeks shown a progressive distention of the abdomen 
and for a few days prior to presentation at the clinic had 
shown inappetence, debility, and difficulty in progression, owing 
largely to the immoderate distension of the abdomen. Hydrops 
amnii was at first diagnosed and an effort made to relieve the 
difficulty by rupturing the supposedly affected membrane 
through the os uteri, but the effort proving fruitless the pa- 
tient was destroyed, and the autopsy showed that the fluid 
had been intra-peritoneal. The peritoneal fluid was pale, 
slightly turbid, and contained numerous shred-like masses of 
dirty grayish lymph floccules. 

The intestines, mesentery, omentum, lungs, and liver wxre 
thickly infested with the degenerate capsules of the CEsopha^os- 
to77ta Coliimbiamnn. It would appear that the unusual number 
of these caseated nodules in the liver were the probable cause 
of the ascites, as a result of their interference with the hepatic 
functions. 

The differential diagnosis between ascites and hydrops 



W. L. WILLIAMS, 



amnii in the pregnant ewe offers peculiar difficulties. The 
heavy abdominal tunic excludes abdominal taxis, the rectum is 
too small for safe exploration per anum, and the vagina fails to 
offer special facilities. The exploratary trocar might give iden- 
tical results in either affection, the foetus in each case would 
tend to float upward, would generally be alive and vigorous, 
while percussion would reveal the same dullness in one case as 
in the other. 

We find no record of hydrops amnii in the ewe, yet it is not 
impossible, as it has been recorded in the goat, though chiefly 
affecting cows. 

The ewe will, in all ^probability, withstand laparotomy as 
well as the cow, in which case this one means for positive diag- 
nosis is readily available, w^hen if it proves to be ascites, the 
fluid can be drained away through the incision, while if hydrops 
amnii the incision can be closed, the os uteri dilated and artifi- 
cial delivery brought about. 

AMPUTATION OF OVARIES AND GRAVID UTERUS IN A BITCH. 

(227) Patient, w^ell-developed Collie bitch, set. 8 months, pro- 
cured by the present owner three weeks prior to presentation at 
the college clinic, was presumably non-pregnant. She had been 
fasted for 12 hours preparatory to spaying, which was under- 
taken by student H. by the flank method without anaesthesia. 
Difficulty was experienced in bringing up the uterus or other 
parts of the internal genitals and it was soon discovered that the 
uterus was gravid, requiring strong tension to lift the cornua up 
and out through the incision, when it was found that each 
cornu contained four foetuses, which with their envelopes 
measured 2^x4 inches each, the eight foetuses in the now 
exposed cornua representing a mass of tlear J^ gallon. The 
round ligaments of the ovaries w^ere ligated wath catgut, 
another ligature being placed about the cervix uteri, the entire 
mass, ovaries, cornua, uterus, and broad ligament were removed 
and the flank incision closed by deep sutures. On the following 
day the patient looked bright, but lay quietly and refused food ; 
on the second day the general appearance was better and appetite 



f 



INTERESTING CASES. 



fair, the animal taking- some milk, and on the third she seemed 
qnite well, moving abont freely, had a good appetite and was 
apparently convalescent. The wound showed slight but unim- 
portant infection and the patient was permitted to be removed, 
after which recovery progressed without incident. 

COMPOUND FRACTURE OF METATARSUS IN A DOG. 

(133) The patient, an adult Collie, had engaged in a fight 
with another dog about three weeks prior to presentation, dur- 
ing which compound fractures of the right metatarsals were 
produced at the lower third, probably by a bite. The owner fail- 
ing to secure recovery the patient was submitted for exami- 
nation, and it was found that the fractured ends of the bones 
moved freely on each other, while they communicated with 
the exterior by two fistulse opening on the median side of 
metatarsus, from which considerable pus was discharging. 

The injured member was fixed by means of plaster of Paris 
bandages, the fistulous openings being marked by a cork, which 
was later cut out and the fistulse dressed with solution of car- 
bolic acid, followed by powdered iodoform, the dressing being 
retained by means of a bandage with equitable pressure. The 
dressing was repeated once daily for six days, at which date the 
suppuration had virtually ceased and the patient was discharged, 
with directions for the continuation of the dressing, and re- 
covery progressed rapidly without further incident. 



PIERRE AUeUSTINE FlSIl,D.Sc.,D.\ .S. 

Assistant Professor of Comparative Physioloo;y 
and Pharmacology. 



ARTICLES. 



Zoophily versus Homophily. 

Transactions of the American Microscopical Society. 1896. 
Vol. xviii. Pp. 142-145. 

Notes on Technique. 

Trans. Anier. Micros. Society. 1896. Vol. xviii. Pp. 287-290. 

Neutral Red in Histology and Bacteriology. 

American Veterinary Review. 1896. Vol. xx. Pp. 626-629. 

The Brain of the Fur Seal, Callorhinus ursinus ; with a comparative de- 
scription of those of Zalophus calif ornianus, Phoca vitulina, Ursus 
americanus and Monachus tropicalis. 

Journal of Comparative Neurology. 1898. Vol. viii. 
Pp. 57-91- 4 plates. 

The Nerve Cell as a Unit. 

Journal of Comparative Neurology 1898. Vol. viii. 
Pp. 99-110. 7 text figures. 



Reprinted from the Proceedings of the American Microscopical Soriety, iSqb. 



ZOOPHILY VERSUS HOMOPHILY. 



PIERRE A. FISH, D. Sc, Cornell University, Ithaca, N. Y. 



The onward march of events, accompanied by new condi- 
tions and new methods, has given a much wider significance 
to the term vivisection than was formerly attached to it. It 
is quite commonly regarded, by those opposed to the prac- 
tice, as a method of inflicting, by dissection upon a living 
conscious animal, excruciating pain for the gratification of 
the operator's curiosity, or for the exhibition of some experi- 
ment already demonstrated and thoroughly familiar. 

Technically a man or animal is vivisected when a hypo- 
dermic needle is thrust into the skin for the purpose of allevi- 
ating the pangs of disease by this form of medication ; while 
if any part of the body be crushed or mangled by a blow, as 
from a club, resulting in serious injury, there is infinitely 
more suffering but not literally vivisection, since the tissues 
are not cut but bruised. Nor is the condition of the victim 
taken into account ; a serious and prolonged operation upon 
an anesthetised animal may result in as little discomfort to 
it as the blows or accidental injuries received by any dog on 
the streets as an incident in his career; or, in the former 
case, if the operation result in death, the end is without pain. 

But the issue that now seems to be nearest the surface, 
under this really comprehensive term of vivisection, is whether 
it is justifiable to utilise, even to their destruction, animals 
for the real or probable benefit of mankind, and with this as 
the issue, there would be the natural classification of those 
who, influenced by genuine sentiments of mercy and a desire 
for the alleviation of suffering, band themselves together for 
its suppression, especially in animals, on account of the ina- 
bility of the dumb beasts to make known certain existing 



2 PIERRE A. FISH : 

abuses and because of their helplessness in competition with 
men. This class of persons would encompass the animals 
with so many and rigid safeguards that if really put into 
practice many lines of progress would be materially restricted. 
For our present purpose let such persons be classified as 
Zoophiles — antivivisectionists — and the vivisectionists as 
Homophiles, the latter advocating not only the essential doc- 
trines of the former but something more. Actuated by the 
same sentiments of mercy and regard for suffering they would, 
when obliged to inflict pain for the general good, minimise it 
to the greatest possible extent, by the use of anesthetics or 
otherwise. 

The practice of vivisection, like the theory of evolution, 
does not appeal to the finer esthetic qualities of mankind ; it 
is not intended to ; it would appeal rather by an array of 
self-evident facts to the importance and necessary usefulness 
of the practice. 

Is it justifiable to sacrifice an animal from a lower level in 
the zoological scale for the preservation or benefit of another 
animal in that same scale ? Nature has already decided that 
question by the creation and maintenance of the order of 
carnivorous animals, which live on flesh alone, and others 
which subsist on mixed diets. If the zoophiles understood 
and were enabled to trace the preparation of their animal 
food from the living creature to the time it is ready for eat- 
ing, would they still exercise as much pertinacity in their 
denial of the right to use lower forms for the benefit of the 
higher, or is Nature again at fault in fashioning the human 
digestive apparatus so that a mixed diet may be enjoyed ? 
Would not a logical adherence to their cardinal principles 
preclude anything but a vegetable diet, and extend even to 
the matter of clothing and personal adornment .'* 

But the answer is made that it is not the aim to legislate 
against animal inoculations for the determination of disease, but 
to supervise and to eliminate the promiscuous and unnecessary 
use of it. Much stress is also laid upon the tortures which have 
been inflicted upon animals in the past, and these remote 



/.oopIIII.^ \"i:rsis iiOMormLv. 3 

instances, although exceptional when the vast number of 
experiments are considered, are resurrected and represented 
as being in common usage at the present day. There is no 
practice that may not be abused. Are the principles of the 
Christian religion, upon which so large a portion of the civi- 
lised world depends for encouragement and support during 
the battle of life, to be undermined because long years ago 
there were certain enthusiasts whose zeal permitted them 
to inflict the most excruciating, cruel and unparalleled tor- 
tures upon their fellow-beings **In His Name"? Is the 
future saving of human life, the saving of vast sums of money 
by the preservation of the lives and eradication of disease 
in domesticated animals, and the search for the truth 
which elevates to a higher plane of civilisation to be retarded 
by the misdeeds of past offenders? Will statistics confirm the 
generalised statement that vivisection tends to brutalise the 
operator ? Such an accusation is not brought against a sur- 
geon in the performance of his duties. Wherein lies the 
great difference in the degree of vivisection ? How many of 
the antivivisectionists have really gone beyond the first shud- 
der at the thought of the existence of pain and appreciated 
the fact that life itself is a struggle for existence, and that 
the perception of a greater or less amount of pain, under 
ordinary conditions, is a circumstance in the career of every 
living creature ? 

The vivisecting experiments of Galvani have illumined not 
only the scientific world, but the material world as well. Out 
of the crude apparatus of a vivisector have been developed 
the wonderful electrical appliances of today. Galvani's 
experiments were the keys which unlocked the doors of 
ignorance, not only as to certain physiological phenomena, 
but the manifold mysteries of the uses of electricity, many 
of which are still unsolved. 

The fact that mature and deliberate judgment may be 
exercised in a question of such vital interest has been recently 
exemplified in one of the Cantons of Switzerland, where a 
measure for the total prohibition of vivisection was submitted 



4 ZOOPHII.V VERSUS HOMOriilLV. 

to the population ad refcrcjidiim, with the result that 40,000 
votes were cast against such prohibition and only 17,000 for it. 

In the District of Columbia, it has been proposed to legis- 
late against vivisection, or, at least, to regulate it by the 
maintenance of certain inspectors, who shall at intervals visit 
the laboratories or other places where the practice is carried 
on. 

The bill as arranged is unnecessary, unreasonable, retro- 
gressive and reactionary in its tendency. 

It is unnecessary, because the great majority of vivisectors 
are intelligent, earnest and humane gentlemen, whose object 
in animal experimentation is to suppress and prevent the 
occurrence of disease, or to add some new fact for the wel- 
fare of mankind. 

It is unreasonable, in that it advocates a system of espion- 
age in which the inspector may be a person ignorant, unskil- 
ful and unappreciative of the object to be investigated or of 
the methods employed therein. It is manifestly unfair to 
permit such a person to ofificiate as censor, and is a malicious 
insinuation against the integrity of the investigator. 

It is retrogressive, because it prevents further research; 
medical and biological sciences can progress only through 
experimentation. 

It is reactionary, because in the effort to encompass the 
animals with so many safeguards their use for the real benefit 
of mankind is lost sight of, and one should be reluctant to 
assume that the antivivisectionists love animals more and their 
fellow-beings less. 

Pain is an adjunct of life, and its merciful infliction upon 
lower forms is not only justifiable but necessary when it may 
alleviate human suffering. Humanity is above animality and 
as long as Nature endows living animals with sensitive tis- 
sues, just so long will pain exist. 



Reprinted from the Transactions of the American Microscopical Society, iSQb. 



NOTES ON TECHNIQUE. 



PIERRE A. FISH, D. Sc, Cornell University, Ithaca, N. Y. 



In many of the modern articles, the methods by which 
certain pathological structures are demonstrated, if mentioned 
at all, are frequently so meager in the description of import- 
ant details as to be practically useless to many workers, unless 
a certain amount of their time is devoted to experimentation. 
A person, who has obtained fairly successful results with his 
older methods, is loath to forsake them, especially if his first 
few attempts with the new are failures. Each investigator 
may have certain laboratory conveniences ; reagents of the 
best quality and dyes that have been well tested, all of which 
will enable him to obtain results much superior to his less 
fortunate colleague. It is difificult, therefore, to work suc- 
cessfully unless details are carefully attended to, and the 
reasons for the various steps understood. The methods fol- 
lowing have been well tested, and have been attended with 
uniformly good results, which in some cases, it is believed, 
would have ended in failure with the older methods. 

FIXATION. 

The fixation of pathological tissues, with strong alcohol for 
histological study, is very commonly employed for the double 
purpose of killing at once any microorganism that may be 
present and at the same time to preserve the structure of the 
part. With many tissues this caused a too rapid withdrawal 
of the contained water or lymph, so that the specimen 
becomes hard and gives unsatisfactory results when it comes 
to the cutting process. 

Some experiments with different reagents, upon known 
pathological material, were of service in formulating a mix- 



2 PIERRE A. FISH : 

ture, which obviated the defects of strong alcohol when used 
alone. This mixture, while quickly killing the bacteria, also 
preserves most faithfully the histological structure. Various 
solutions of formalin, including the undiluted, were employed, 
and gave good results, particularly the presentation of the 
bacteria, after the usual staining methods. The tissues were 
more or less swollen by the weaker solutions, in marked con- 
trast to the contraction caused by alcohol. Various combi- 
nations of formalin with alcohol were also tried, and that 
which seemed to be most completely satisfactory for quick 
penetration and convenience, bacteriologically and histologi- 
cally, was as follows : 

95 per cent, alcohol ico parts. 

Commercial formalin (40 per cent, formic aldehyde) . lo parts. 

Pieces of tissue, A centimeter square, are well fixed in 
from twelve to twenty-four hours, after which it is well to 
leave for a few hours in 95 per cent, alcohol before clarifying 
for the paraffin bath. Specimens, transferred directly from 
the fixing mixture, have been clarified in chloroform or cedar 
oil, but it requires a longer time. 

The addition of the formalin is advantageous, because in 
a way it brings about a state of equilibrium. The alcohol 
alone shrinks the tissue, while on the other hand formalin 
swells it, so that in this respect the one reacts against the 
other. 

ADHESION TO THE SLIDE. 

After the infiltration and imbedding of the tissue in paraf- 
fin, the question of the treatment of the sections is one of 
some importance. If they are to be carried through a series 
of reagents in watch glasses, and not placed upon the slide 
until they are mounted, the sections must necessarily be 
rather thick, in order to withstand the manipulation. Very 
much thinner sections, if adherent to the slide, and conse- 
quently supported by it, can be carried through the different 
steps of the process without injury, and show the structural 
elements to much better advantage. 



NOTES ON TECHNIQUE. . 3 

The albumen or collodion adhesive, usually employed for 
this purpose, however, possesses the disadvantage of taking 
the aniline colors used in bacteriology, sufficiently to disfigure 
the preparations. If a clean slide be coated with a thin film 
of glycerine and then rubbed very nearly dry with a cloth or 
the hand, and a drop or two of 35 per cent, alcohol be placed 
upon it, the section, if curled, will tend to flatten itself when 
placed on the alcohol. If the slide now be placed in a 
thermostat for a few hours, at a temperature near the melting 
point of paraflin, the heat will cause any wrinkles or irregu- 
larities of the section to disappear ; the alcohol slowly 
evaporates and when the slide is thoroughly dry the albumen 
molecules of the tissue adhere quite firmly to the slide, as 
noted by Gaule. After this the slide may be heated gently 
over a flame until the paraffin begins to melt. If any mois- 
ture remains the section will be quite likely to loosen during" 
the latter stages. Thick sections do not adhere so firmly as 
thin ones. The slides may then be immersed in a jar of tur- 
pentine or any solvent of paraffin and carried through the 
various grades of alcohol to water. 

A shorter method, in which there is as firm adhesion of 
the section to the slide, is to bring the slide in contact with 
aniline oil for a few minutes after the treatment with the tur- 
pentine, absorbing the superfluous turpentine with filter 
paper. The aniline oil is also removed by means of filter 
paper. The section is then thoroughly washed in distilled 
water which removes the oil, and the tissue is then stained 
and washed in water. If aniline stains are used, a hurried 
rinsing is sufficient. Drain or absorb the water and again 
apply the aniline oil. Besides clearing the section the oil 
tends to remove the aniline stain and care must be exercised 
in not letting this process go to far. Displace the aniline oil 
with xylol and mount in balsam. The color ought not to 
fade if the aniline oil has been thoroughly removed. 

With certain stains, or combinations of them, the aniline 
oil may not succeed in preserving the sharp definition of the 
color. Under such conditions the section, after staining^ 



4 ^ NOTES ON TECHNIQUE. 

may be treated directly with absolute alcohol to dehydrate 
and remove any superfluous stain. Some aniline dyes are not 
as soluble in absolute alcohol as in the weaker grades. Clear 
in xylol and mount in balsam. 

The use of aniline oil in the treatment of the sections will 
be recognised as having been recommended by Weigert for 
bacterial purposes. It likewise gives most excellent results 
in ordinary histological work and is a saving of time and 
material. 

MOUNTING. 

Many valuable specimens are ruined for the want of suf- 
ficient precaution in the preparation of the balsam. In its 
commercial state it contains many volatile principles and 
traces of acids, which, in the course of time, act upon the 
specimen and diminishes or entirely removes the color. All 
this may be lessened, if the balsam be heated sufficiently to 
drive off the volatile constituents, or more thoroughly obvi- 
ated if a little potassium carbonate or mild alkali be added 
to neutralise the acid just before the balsam is heated. When 
the balsam becomes hard it can be broken into flakes and 
stored. When wanted for use dissolve in xylol to the desired 
consistency and filter through absorbent cotton. Specimens 
stained with the Biondi-Ehrlich mixture (which fades so 
easily) have at the end of a year shown no signs of losing 
their pristine clearness. 



NEUTRAL RED IN HISTOLOGY AND BACTERIOLOGY. 

By PiKRRE A. Fish, I). Sc ,I).V. S.,N. Y. Statk Veterinary College, Ithaca, N. Y, 



Neutral red {^Ncutralroth^ recti/. nacJi EhrlicJi) in weak so- 
lutions of i-io,ooo or thereabouts, has been demonstrated to pos- 
sess considerable efficiency in the staining of vital tissues, but 
some difficulty has been experienced in finding a trustworthy 
mordaunt to prevent the dye from washing out of the stained 
tissues too readily. For the study of living protozoa it has 
proven of considerable service, but for higher forms which must 
undergo killing, imbedding and sectioning, there have been 
manifest difficulties encountered. Quite satisfactory results, how- 
ever, were obtained in the case of a tapeworm {Dipylzdmni) found 
in a dog. The living worm after an immersion of 12-15 hours in 
normal salt solution with enough of the neutral red salt to tinge 
the fluid, became markedly colored but somewhat shrunken 
owing to the difference in the temperature. In order to avoid 
the removal of the dye from the specimen and to prepare the tis- 
sue for the subsequent processes some of the segments of the 
worm were immersed in a 3 to 5 per cent, solution of formalin 
also tinged with the dye. After 12-24 hours the tissue was thor- 
oughly fixed and there was no diminution in the color. The 
subsequent treatment was that as ordinarily employed for in toto 
staining. The superfluous stain was removed during the passage 
of the tissue through the alcohols, and the specimen, after dehy- 
dration and clarification was mounted in balsam. 

Portions of the vertebrate nervous system have also been 
simultaneously fixed and stained en masse in the formalin-neu- 
tral red mixture, and, after imbedding in collodion or paraffin, 
have been sectioned and mounted with very satisfactory results. 
Section staining has also resulted very satisfactorily, if the sec- 
tions are treated with absolute alcohol immediately after stain- 
ing. With lower percentages of alcohol the color i5 generally 
all washed out by the time the tissue is dehydrated. The dye 



2 NEUTRAL RED IN HISTOLOGY AND BACTERIOLOGY. 

is also soluble in most of the clarifying reagents, so that in order 
to obtain the best effects the absolute alcohol should be allowed 
to act only just long enough to dehydrate the tissue, then clarify 
with xylol (which does not remove the dye) and mount in 
balsam. 

The dye seems to have an especial affinity for the chromatin 
of the cells, staining this substance more or less intensely and 
leaving the remaining tissue colorless. Under proper conditions 
it would seem as if it might exert some special action on the 
neutrophilous tissue elements. 

In addition to its histological uses neutral red has been found 
serviceable for some bacteriological purposes. iVs the name in- 
dicates the salt is of a neutral character, and a trace of it in a 
small beaker of water causes the mixture to assume a pmkish 
color. This solution has been found useful as a test and a more 
delicate one than litmus paper for determining the alkalinity of 
culture media. If the media be acid or neutral there is no marked 
change in the red when a portion of the media is added unless 
there be a slight deepening of the pink color ; but if the media 
be alkaline and a few drops be added to the neutral red solution 
and slightly agitated the mixture immediately changes to a 
brown color. 

In aqueous solutions the neutral red, if treated with either 
sulphuric, hydrochloric or nitric acid, at first shows no change, 
but if a sufficient amount of either acid be added the color 
changes from red, first to purple and then to a deep blue. If 
acetic acid be added to the aqueous solution of the neutral red 
there is no change except perhaps a slight deepening of the 
color. 

In an alcoholic solution, the neutral red presents a light 
brown or amber color ; upon the addition of an alkali (sodium 
hydrate) this is not changed except for a general lightening of 
the color due to the dilution. If the alcoholic solution be treated 
with hydrochloric acid added in increasing quantities it changes 
first to a red and tlien to a light blue ; if treated with nitric acid 
the solution changes to a red and then to a dark blue ; if sul- 
phuric acid be employed the change is first to a red and then to 



NEUTRAL RED IN HISTOLOGY AND BACTERIOLOGY. 6 

a bottle-green color. Acetic acid changes the alcholic solution 
to a pinkish-red color. 

As a result of these crude experiments, the idea quite 
naturally presented itself that the neutral red solution might be 
incorporated with the culture media and the reaction of the dif- 
ferent bacteria observed directly during their growth. In the 
experiments which followed a number of micro-organisms were 
utilized among which were the following : bacillus cholerae suis, 
Proteus vulgaris and mirabilis, bacillus of diphtheria, bacillus 
fluorescens liquefacieus ; bacillus anthracis ; comma bacillus ; 
bacillus typhosus ; bacillus acidi lactici ; staphylococcus pyo- 
genes aureus and a yellow sarcina. 

The report of the results is purposely crude and generalized. 
A few certain well known and representative forms carefully 
tested with the various media under different conditions would 
do much towards elucidating the possession or absence of specific 
chemical reducing powers. 

In the preparation of the cultures a i per cent, solution of 
the neutral red salt was used. This was thoroughly sterilized, 
and then with a sterilized pipette ten drops of the " red " was 
added to the already sterilized media (bouillon, agar, or 
gelatin). The proportion being approximately lo drops of the 
4- per cent, solution of the red to about 8 cc. of the media. The 
resulting mixture was a bright garnet red color. Besides the 
ordinary tube and plate cultures, fermentation tubes containing 
glucose, saccharose and lactose were utilized. As in the case of the 
others, the neutral red was added to the already sterilized media ; 
but on account of the admission of more or less air when the red 
and media were mixed, the fermentation tubes were again 
heated in the sterilizer and the bubble of air in the closed tube 
tilted out so that the reducing properties of the mixture might 
not be interfered with. 

The results obtained, with the various media employed and 
the action of the different micro-organisms upon them, may be 
briefly summarized into two general classes of phenomena : 

I. Those organisms which change the garnet red media to a 
fluorescent and then to an ultimate brown color. 



4 NEUTRAL RED IN HISTOLOGY AND BACTERIOLOGY. 

2. Those which do not cause fluorescence nor change the red 
color except to deepen it. 

In general the flnorescent and brown color indicate an alka- 
line reaction ; the red the presence of an acid or a neutral con- 
dition. Between these two groups some intermediate conditions 
may be found, as for instance, when the media may contain a 
greater or less amount of grape sugar, certain of the bacteria 
may give, at first, an acid followed by an alkaline reaction ; or 
an apparently opposite condition may be shown as in one case 
of the bacillus coli commtmis grown in a fermentation tube of 
glucose. There soon appeared the fluorescence but the litmus 
paper demonstrated an acid reaction, later the fluorescence disap- 
peared and the characteristic red (acid) color returned. 

The change of the red to the fluorescent and brown color is, 
in general, caused by the alkalinity ; but it will also be remem- 
bered that alcohol turns the red to a brown, and that with the 
proper conditions as to the presence of grape sugar and reaction 
of the bacteria, some alcoholic fermentation may be set up, 
which in the above mentioned case of the bacillus coli in glu- 
cose, may account for the unexpected fluorescence with an acid 
reaction and likewise be of some service as a test for alcohol. 

When fluorescence does occur in the fermentation tube it is 
■usually more distinctly shown in the closed tube than in the 
bulb. The greater volume of the fluid in the latter is perhaps 
the explanation for this. 

Rather an unusual amount of crystallization developed in the 
agar and gelatin media. While this phenomena is not uncom- 
mon in these media as ordinarily used, the addition of the red 
seemed to develop the crystals quite constantly and in unusual 
quantities. They were quite inconstant as to color, size and 
form, in the different species and the variations met with in 
these respects, although perhaps of no use diagnostically, seemed, 
nevertheless, worthy of mention. 

'94 Ehrlich. Ueber Neutralroth, Z^/A /! 7c>f'ss. Mikros. XI. — 250. [Abstract.] .Aus 
dem Hericht " Uber dem Ehrlichschen Vortrag ini Verein fiir Innere Medicin " zu IJerlin 
18/12, 1893. Alli:;em. Med. Centraheitg. 1894. No. 2, p. 20. 

'94. tialeotti Gino. Recerche sulla colorabilita delle cellule viventi. 

Zeit. f. 7i>/ss. Mikros. XI. 1 72-207. 



THE BRAIN OF THE FUR SEAL, CALLORHINUS 
URSINUS; WITH A COMPARATIVE DESCRIP- 
TION OF THOSE OF ZALOPHUS CALIFORNIAN- 
US, PHOCA VITULINA, URSUS AMERICANUS 
AND MONACHUS TROPICALIS.^^ 

By Pierre A. Fish, D. Sc, D. V. S. 

A\ V. Stale Veterinary College, Ithaca, N. V. 
With Plates X to XIII. 



TABLE OF CONTENTS. 

Introduction 58 

Removal of dura, .......... 59 

Terminology, .......... 60 

CaLLORHINUS URSINUS, .61 

Lateral aspect, .......... 62 

Mesal aspect, ........... 66 

PhOCA VITULINA, 68 

Lateral aspect, .......... 68 

Mesal aspect, .......... 7' 

URSUS AMERICANUS, 7^ 

Lateral aspect, 7^ 

Mesal aspect, ' . . . •74 

Zalophus californianus, 75 

Lateral aspect, 75 

Mesal aspect 7^ 

, FissuRAL interpretations of other writers, 77 

The LATERAL VENTRICLE (paracocle) , 78 

monachus tropicalis, 8l 

General considerations, 84 

Description of plates, 91 

*This article was written at the request of a member of the Bering Sea 
Commission and will appear in their Report of the Bering Sea Fur Seal Investi- 
gations. 



58 Journal of Comparative Neurology. 



Introduction. 

The specimen was from a young male pup twenty fiv^e 
inches in length, weighing about twelve pounds. The brain 
was still incased in the dura and on the basal surface portions 
of the cranial bones were left adherent to this membrane. An 
occasional cut through the dura caused a jDrotrusion or hernia 
of the cerebral substance. 

The weight of the brain in the fresh condition, as reported 
by Mr. Lucas, was ten ounces and two hundred and forty 
grains. This included the dura with the attached cranial 
fragments. 

The specimen was preserved in a ''rather strong solution 
of formalin" and except for some swelling of the tissue and soft- 
ening of the interior was in a very good condition. The bloat- 
ing was indicated by the increased weight which, immediatly 
after the receipt of the specimen, Dec. 12, '96 was found to be 
13 ounces, a gain of nearly three ounces, by the closure of the 
fissures and by the cerebral hernias. The weight without dura and 
attached fragments of cranial bones after preservation from Sep. 
I to Dec. 12 was 9^ ounces and 80 grains (avoir.). The lat- 
eral girth was 26 centimeters, the longitudinal girth with the 
oblongata cut off at an even level with the caudal surface of the 
cerebellum was 24 centimeters, being slightly less than the 
former. This may, perhaps, be accounted for, to some extent, 
by the tape resting slightly in the inter-cerebral cleft, and to the 
bloating, as this would affect the lateral rather than the longi- 
tudinal circumference. 

The brain as indicated by the girth measurements was of a 
subglobular form slightly tapering at the ends and its outer sub- 
stance though firm was not unyielding. Twenty four hours 
immersion in 95% alchol served to contract the nervous tissue 
sufficiently to open the fissures and yet to retain enough flexi- 
bility of their walls to permit of an easy examination of their 



Fish, Brain of the Ftir Seal. 59 

depths. In order to obtain the desired results, after photo- 
graphing the dorsal and ventral surfaces of the entire brain, it 
was cut across and the crura cerebri or mesencephal, and the 
cerebellum and oblongata separated. The cerebrum was then 
divided by a section along the median line, separating it as 
nearly as possible into two equal halves. 

Removal of dura. The falx showed an interesting devel- 
opment, its frontal portion, especially in the region of the 
olfactory bulbs, being of considerable]]depth, then becoming very 
shallow along the middle of the length of the cerebrum and be- 
coming very deep again in the intercerebral cleft in the caudal 
region of the cerebrum. A distinct longitudinal venous sinus 
as in the human brain is not present ; but in place of it is a vein 
of some size lying to the right of the ( intercerebral ) cleft and 
receiving the contents of the dorsal cerebral veins. In connec- 
tion with the weak development of the falx along the middle of 
its length, there was noticed an interdigitation of the gyres of 
the mesal surface of the hemicerebrums in this region. This 
intimate overlapping of the gyres on the mesal surfaces of the 
two hemicerebrums is possibly correlated with the deficiency of 
growth of the falx here and may serve, in a measure, to increase 
the firmness of the union of this region and prevent any undue 
strain upon the callosum which lies some little distance from 
the dorsal surface of the cerebrum. 

This interdigitation of the mesal gyres is also present in the 
sheep where the falx is also deficiently developed. If the hem- 
icerebrums be divided with a sharp knife without first separating 
the pial adhesion of the gyres, the gyres will be cut. An artifact 
of this nature has, indeed, been mistaken by one writer in an 
article on Phoca^ for the cut surface of a bundle of fibers dorsal 
to and larger than the callosum and designated by him as the 
commissura suprema. 

The tentorium in Callorhinus is very strongly developed, 
apparently extending the whole depth of the transverse arch- 
like cleft between the cerebrum and cerebellum. The tough 
fibrous tissue of the tentorium is, moreover, very noticeably re- 
inforced by the presence of osseous tissue. Where the falx 



6o Journal of Comparative Neurology. 

joins the tentorium there is an extension of this osseous tissue 
in a vertical direction into the falx, a circumstance which cer- 
tainly is not common in the majority of other animals but has 
been noted by Turner in Macrorlmuis. 

Tenninology. With the existing uncertainties relating to the 
homolog)' of the fissures of the brains of the carnivora and that 
of the human species, much confusion has resulted in the pre- 
sent nomenclature. Some have made a direct homology, 
others have proposed a fissural type solely and only for the 
lower forms, while still others have blended the two and some 
have utilized a system of names devised by themselves. On the 
lateral surface of the various fissured brain types there is at least 
one fissure — the Sylvian — which is quite constantly present, and 
on the mesal surface, the hippocampal fissure. 

In the matter of nomenclature no attempt has been made 
to follow the law of priority, but those fissural names, whether 
of old or recent date which seemed most appropriate concern- 
ing position and relation, have been adopted, and, with perhaps 
but one or two exceptions, no new names have been introduced. 
It has been the purpose to use an intrinsic terminology and to 
substitute for the sometimes indefinite terms, anterior, poster- 
ior, superior and inferior, terms of more universal applicability, 
cephalic, caudal, dorsal and ventral. For cephalic and caudal 
Professor Wilder has recently suggested praeal and postal as 
equivalents, and for cephalad and caudad, praead and postad. 

Where certain of the fissures or gyres have been submerged 
for a portion or the whole of their course, they have been des- 
ignated as such, or the equivalent terms, subfissure or subgyre 
proposed by Wilder, have been used. 

In the study of fissures mere surface appearances are not 
accepted as final. A fissural entity is not always easy to define. 
The best apparent guide is the relative depth throughout the 
course of the fissure. We may commonly assume that the 
greatest depth is at about the middle of its length and that it 
becomes gradually shallow toward each end until it reaches the 
surface. Such a simple condition, however, docs not usually 
exist. One fissure may join the end of another, giving the ap- 



Fish, Brain of tJic Fur Seal. 6 1 

pearance at the surface of a long continuous fissure. By 
separating its walls or "sounding" its depth the true state of 
affairs is easily perceived. The presence of a shallow whether 
it be near or at a distance from the end of a fissure would seem 
to indicate that at some time during development this shallow 
has been or will be represented at the surface and separate two 
independent fissures. 

CALLORHINUS URSINUS. 

Cranial Neri'cs. The cranial nerve roots of CallorJiimis are 
well developed and need no special comment. In the case of 
the optic nerves we do not find the X-shaped chiasma as in 
Phoca, but the nerves run parallel to each other for a short 
distance from the chiasma before diverging toward the eyes. 

The third pair or oculomotor nerves have a straight lateral 
direction from their apparent origins, but at the lateral border 
of the hypophysis they bend abruptly upon themselves and 
proceed cephalad forming a very distinct right angle. 

The olfactory lobes are fairly well developed. 

Fissures. No special mention will be made of the gyres 
(convolutions). These are naturally formed by the fissural de- 
pressions and it is believed that a careful description of these 
furrows will by implication include that of the gyres sufficiently 
for our present purpose. 

The olfactory fissure is completely hidden by the olfactory 
crus and bulb ; when these are removed a shallow fissure is ap- 
parent which becomes deeper toward the base of the lobe. 

Forming the lateral boundry of the olfactory lobe is the 
rhinal fissure which passes in a caudo-lateral direction to the 
Sylvian. An apparent continuation of the rhinal from the Syl- 
vian is known as the post-rhinal fissure. It extends in a meso- 
caudal direction for a centimeter and a half, stopping just short 
of the cleft between the cerebrum and the cerebellum. A care- 
ful examination of the postrhinal shows that it has no connec- 
tion whatever with the rhinal but is continuous, superficially at 
least, with a subfissure (postica ?) lying in the caudal wall of the 
Sylvian. 



62 Journal of Comparative Neurology. 

Lateral Aspect. The Sylvian is a convenient fissure to be- 
gin with. There is usually some evidence of it if the brain is 
at all fissured, and in the lower animals, at least, it forms a cen- 
ter around which other fissures are more or less regularly ar- 
ranged. In Callorliinus the Sylvian extends in a dorso-caudal 
direction, inclining somewhat toward the vertical. Apparently 
it terminates in a fork, but when the walls of the fissure are di- 
varicated it is seen that the cephalic or anterior branch is really 
another fissure, which, after its superficial union with the Syl- 
vian, becomes a submerged fissure lying just beneath the surface 
of its cephalic wall and running parallel with it to the base 
of the brain, but not actually connecting either with the Sylvian 
or with the rhinal. The Sylvian on account of the subfissural 
complication appears to be a larger fissure than it really is. 

In a former paper ^ attention was called to the fact that this 
vertical fissure (superficial vertical branch of the Sylvian) had 
been mistaken for the true Sylvian. Both fissures are well 
marked and cannot be ignored, but it is an unusual circumstance 
for the Sylvian to assume a strictly vertical position in the adult 
and there would, moreover, remain a fissure in the usual situa- 
tion of the Sylvian unaccounted for. In my former paper I des- 
ignated this vertical fissure as the Anterior of the Felidae, and 
found at a later date, while consulting Krueg's article ' that 
he questioningly represents a similar fissure by the same name 
in CalocepJialus (^Phoca) vitulinus. CallorJiinus, while showing 
this fissure similarly situated, instead of elucidating the compli- 
cations, seems rather to add to them and to suggest a probable 
doubt as to the correctness of the homology with the anterior 
fissure. Indeed, the conditions are strongly suggestive of its 
being nothing more than the detached frontal portion of the 
super-sylvian fissure. An examination of the brains of certain 
bears tends to illuminate this view. In the family Ursidae as 



' '96. P. A. Fish. A note on the Cerebral Fissuration of the Seal (Phoca 
Vitulina). Jour. Comp. Neurol. VI, 15-19. 

''80. J. Krueg. Ueber die Furchen auf der Grosshirnrinde der zonopla- 
centalen Saugethiere. Zeit. f. wiss. Zoologie, XXXIII, 595-C72, 5 plates. 



Fish, Brain of the Fur Seal. 6'^ 

in the Canidae the super-sylvian forms a complete arch, the cau- 
dal portion being known as the posterior supersylvian (Krueg), 
or postsylvian (Owen). The frontal portion of this arch varies 
in its distance from the Sylvian. Occasionally the frontal and 
caudal portions are about equally distant, but when there is any 
difference in this distance, it appears that the frontal portion ap- 
proaches more closely to the Sylvian than does the caudal. In 
Ursus arctos, or the brown bear, Krueg figures the frontal por- 
tion of the supersylvian as approximating very closely to the 
Sylvian. The condition in CallorJiiims might be considered as 
a stage just beyond this. In the brown bear the frontal portion 
of the supersylvian is still visible upon the lateral surface close to 
the Sylvian. In the case of the seal it has passed over the 
brink, so to speak, and is no longer visible its entire length on 
the lateral surface. The following diagrams will illustrate the 
conditions more clearly. 




Fig. 1. Fig. 2. 

Figs, I and 2. A diagrammatic representation of the relation of the Sylvian 
and supersylvian fissures in the bear and seal, as if seen in section, prss^ pre- 
supersylvian. pss, postsupersylvian. Syl, Sylvian fissure. 

At the bottom of the Sylvian fissure lies the insula, pre- 
senting but a slight degree of development. There is a sugges- 
tion of a circuminsular fissure but in other respects the surface 
is entirely smooth. In the caudal wall of the Sylvian is a well 
marked subfissure. It separates a portion of the concealed cor- 
tex, forming a subgyre, which from its size and position might 
be easily mistaken for the insula. The appearances would sug- 
gest that the subfissure is the postica and the subgyre a rem- 
nant of the Sylvian gyre. 

The supersylvian fissure shows some variation on the two 
sides. It presents the usual arrangement on the right hemice- 
brum, forming, superficially at least, a complete arch around 



64 Journal of Comparative Neurology. 

the Sylvian. The presence of a shallow and a slight bifurcation 
near the level of the free end of the Sylvian indicates the sep- 
aration of a postsupersylvian fissure, postsylvian of other 
writers. Plate I, Fig. 4. The supersylvian curves around the 
free end of the Sylvian at a rather sharp angle and soon appar- 
ently enters the Sylvian, but in reality is submerged in its 
cephalic wall. A very short cephalic branch is given off toward 
the ansate fissure before the supersylvian enters the Sylvian. 
On the left hemicerebrum there are three distinct portions ; the 
postsupersylvian has a slightly more oblique dorso-caudal course, 
the supersylvian proper is quite branching and more inclined to 
a vertical than a horizontal course. One of its branches appears 
to enter the Sylvian from behind but a shallow shuts off any deep 
connection. The frontal portion appears as a surface fissure for 
only one third of its course, then, as on the other side, it becomes 
submerged in the Sylvian. As this portion bears much the 
same relation to the supersylvian as the postsupersylvian 
whether they be disconnected or not, the frontal portion will be 
designated as the presupersylvian fissure. In the second speci- 
men of the brain of an adult CallorJutius, kindly loaned to me 
by Mr. True, the executive curator of the U. S. National Mu- 
seum, both hemicercbrums showed a distinct separation of the 
postsupersylvian, more pronounced than on the right hemice- 
rebrum of the pup ; but there was no separation nor distinct ap- 
pearance of a shallow indicating an independent presupersylvian 
as in the left hemicerebrum of the pup. In the adult, as in the 
pup, each supersylvian gave off a short cephalic branch before 
entering the Sylvian. 

The Lateral fissure, on account of the breadth of the brain, 
does not show in its entirety upon the lateral aspect. It is 
twelve centimeters long, by far the longest fissure, and is seen 
for a short portion of its course upon the ventral aspect extend- 
ing, on the left hemicerebrum, to within five millimeters of the 
ventral portion of the postsupersylvian. It lies in this region 
just in advance of the margin of the cleft between the cerebrum 
and the cerebellum. It then arches caudo-dorsally approxi- 
mately parallel with the hemicerebral margin but receding from 



Fish, Brain of the Fur Seal, 65 

it until it fully reaches the dorsal surface, then approaching to 
within eight or nine millimeters of the intercerebral cleft, it con- 
tinues its arched course in a cephalo-ventral direction approach- 
ing to within fiv^e millimeters of the presupersylvian fissure at 
about the level where the latter becomes submerged in the Syl- 
vian. 

The lateral is a deep fissure and no distinct evidence of 
shallows could be detected along its course although in certain 
places the presence of submerged buttresses interfered to some 
extent with the soundings, the average depth being from ten to 
thirteen millimeters. The cephalic extremity of the fissure ter- 
minates in a fork, more marked on the left hemicerebrum than 
on the right. Does this widely forked termination represent 
the ansate fissure ? It has the same appearance and relation to 
the lateral as seen in the cat, and provisionally, it is here so 
designated. 

The gyre, bounded by the lateral and supersylvian fissures 
and its parts, is indented by numerous branches originating 
from the above named fissures. There are also occasionally in- 
dependent minor fissures present in this gyre. 

The Ectolateral fissure. The ectolateral on the right 
hemicerebrum is a distinct fissure. It begins on the ventral 
surface near the termination of the postrhinal ; it then proceeds 
dorso-caudally, parallel with the postsupersylvian and for about 
the same distance. On the left side it is a shorter fissure and 
superficially is continuous with the dorsal portion of the postsu- 
persylvian but a shallow separates a deeper connection. On 
the left side side of the adult Callorhinus, a somewhat similar 
condition exists except that the superficial union of the ectolat- 
eral is with the ventral portion of the postsupersylvian. 

The Coronal fissure is about three centimeters in length and 
extends except for a slight caudal convexity in an almost verti- 
cal (dorso-caudal) direction. Its greatest depth is eight milli- 
meters. On the right hemicerebrum it gives off a slight spur 
pointing toward the Sylvian. In Callorhinits it represents, per- 
haps, the least complicated fissure in the brain. 

The Cruciate fissure is not at ail represented upon the rne- 



66 Journal of Comparative Neurology. 

sal surface of the brain. It is seen best from a dorsal \'ie\v. It 
arises at the mar"-in of the intercerebral cleft. It arches in an 

o 

obliquely cephalo-lateral direction. From the cephalic extrem- 
ity of the cruciate at a depth of fifteen millimeters there passes 
off another fissure, which Krueg" has represented as the precru- 
ciate in certain carnivora, nearly to the mesal margin just dor- 
sal to the olfactory bulb. The depth of these fissures at their 
junction is from 12-15 niillimeters. Between these fissures and 
the intercerebral cleft there is a triangular shaped area to which 
Mivart has applied the name of ** ursine lozenge" (Turner), 
thought by Mivart to be of considerable significance. Just 
caudal to the cruciate fissure is a small fissure corresponding to 
the postcruciate of Krueg. On the left hemicerebrum it is tri- 
radiate, on the right it is straight. 

The Superorbital fissure has no connection with the rhinal. 
Its length is 25 millimeters and its depth 8-10 millimeters. It 
has a slight lateral convexity but has no branches. 

The Medilateral fissure. The name of this fissure is par- 
ticularly appropriate in Callorlnims ; not only is it on the mesal 
side of the lateral fissure, but for a portion of its course is actually 
on the mesal aspect of the brain. It curves around the caudal 
margin of the hemicerebrum just on the verge of the cerebro- 
cerebellar cleft. Between the lateral and medilateral fissures 
there is a gyre averaging about i 5 millimeters in width in which 
there are two or three secondary fissures, which would seem to 
indicate an attempt at the division of this gyre into two. 

Mesal Aspect. The callosal fissure presents no marked pe- 
culiarity except upon the left hemicerebrum where, instead of 
continuing around the genu of the callosum, it proceeds toward 
the dorsal margin, or is continuous with a fissure coming from 
this margin. On neither hemicerebrum is there any appear- 
ance of a fissure immediately surrounding the genu. The hip- 
pocampal fissure occupies its usual position, arching from the 
splenium around the optic thalamus to the tip of the pyriform or 
temporal lobe. 

The Splenial fissure. On the right hemicerebrum, this fis- 
sure, if prolonged on the dorsal aspect, would be continuous 



Fish, Brain of the Fur Seal. 6y 

with the cruciate. It is separated by a gyre 4 millimeters in 
width. The fissure passes ventro-caudally and a Httle beyond 
the splenium on the ventral aspect and it apparently terminates 
in a wide fork, or else enters a fissure passing at right angles to 
its own course. Sounding the fissure at this point gives some 
indication of a shallow separating the caudal branch of the fork. 
Following the appearance designated by Krueg in his diagrams 
of the conditions found in some of the carnivora, the splenial 
proper includes the ventral branch of the fork, while the dorsal 
branch may represent what he calls the postsplenial. On the 
left hemicerebrum the splenial fissure penetrates the hemice- 
rebral margin and appears for a short distance on the dorsal sur- 
face. A smaller but well defined fissure lies in front of the 
splenial. On the left side it cuts the dorsal margin. For the 
present we may designate it as the presplenial fissure. It cor- 
responds very well with the fissure which Kiikenthal has called 
fissura sublimica anterior. 

The Marginal or supersplenial just passes the meso-ventral 
margin of the hemicerebrum about ten millimeters caudad of the 
splenial. It extends approximately parallel with it to the dor- 
.sal margin which it cuts and on the right hemicerebrum extends 
on the dorsal surface for about 15 millimeters. On the left 
hemicerebrum the fissure branches just at the margin. The 
main portion however continues obliquely latero-cephalad for 
about 20 millimeters. In the gyre between the splenial and su- 
persplenial fissures a well represented secondary fissure is seen. 

A well defined but unnamed fissure lies on the meso-ven- 
tral surface. It arises at the caudal margin and proceeds in an 
angular course toward the ventral end of the splenial, it then 
swerves cephalo-laterad and terminates not far from the post- 
rhinal. Its position corresponds approximately to the collateral 
fissure in the human brain. This tentorial surface of the cere- 
brum has numerous secondary fissures and branchings some of 
which seem large enough to merit special mention. One such 
fissure lying parallel with the postsplenial suggests a similarity 
to the occipital. It cuts the hemicerebral margin slightly and 
the relation of the lateral fissure at this point suggests in a way 



68 Journal of Comj\.\rative Neurology. 

the paroccipital of man. This occurs on the left hemiccrebrum. 
On the rlg^ht the postsplenial has much the same appearance. 

At the ccphahc end of the mesal surface beyond the genu 
of the caUosum, there are two pretty well marked fissures. The 
one nearest the callosum corresponds to the genualis of Krueg, 
part of falcial — Owen, or falcial — Wilder. On each hemicere- 
brum this fissure cuts the dorsal margin slightly. The other 
and more slightly developed fissure lies nearer to the olfactory 
bulb. It does not reach the dorsal margin but extends farther 
in the ventral direction. This fissure corresponds to the rost- 
ralis of Krueg, part of falcial — Owen, subfalcial — Wilder, 

PHOCA VITULINA. 

The frontal portion of the cerebrum is more foreshortened 
than in Callorliimis and there is therefore a slightly different ar- 
rangement of corresponding fissures in that region. One of the 
most striking differences is the olfactory portion of the brain. In 
Calloi'Iiinus it is the larger, the olfactory bulb is of considerable 
size, the crus is correspondingly wide and lies flush with the 
mesal surface. In Phoca the bulb is relatively smaller and the 
crus has atrophied to scarcely more than a pedicle, it lies deep- 
ly imbedded in the olfactory fissure and it is removed 6-8 milli- 
meters from the mesal surface by a portion of the cortex which 
projects fully 5 millimeters beyond the crus. 

The precribrum (anterior perforated space) is well devel- 
oped and shows with greater distinctness than in Callorhimis. 
The rhinal fissure is apparently continuous with the Sylvian, but 
upon raising the overlapping portion of the frontal lobe, it is 
seen to maintain its continuity and to appear again caudal to the 
Sylvian as the postrhinal, differentiating a larger pyriform 
lobe than in the case of Callorhinus. There is no connection 
between the postrhinal and the subfissure in the caudal wall of 
the Sylvian as in CallorJunus. 

Lateral Aspect. The Sylvian fissure pursues a much more 
obliquely dorso-caudal course than in Callorhinus and presents 
the same amount o^ complexity with relation to the surround- 
ing fissures. In its caudal wall lies a subfissure (postica ?) and 



Fish, Brain of the Fur Seal. 69 

the intervening Sylvian j^yre. Both arc relatively better de- 
veloped than in CallorJunus. The supersylvian has much the 
same relation to the Sylvian as in CallorJiiiuis. It is not distinct- 
ly separated from the postsupersylvian althou£,di the interlockin<^- 
of some of the subgyral buttresses suggests the possibility of 
an attempt at separation. On each hemicerebrum there is a 
continuation of the postsupersylvian dorso-caudad beyond the 
supersylvian. 



Fig. 3. Fig. 4. 

^'S- 3- Cross section of a fissure, showing the obliquity of the walls. 

Fig. 4. A diagram to show the difference in the course of a fissure at its 
surface and depth. The heavy lines represent the fissure walls at the surface. 
The dotted lines and arrows represent the buttresses (b) formed by the bulging of 
the deeper portion of the wall of the fissure. 

The frontal end of the supersylvian apparently forks, one 
branch bending toward the Sylvian, the other continuing cephal- 
ad. The ventral branch has a superficial union with the verti- 
cal fissure which has been mistaken for the Sylvian. In my 
former paper (1. c.) I designated this fissure as the anterior. 
Krueg also had taken the same view. From the conditions al- 
ready described in Callorhimts, it seems to me that this fissure 
is after all a disconnected portion of the supersylvian and that 
presupersylvian would in some ways be a suitable name for it. 
It is submerged in the cephalic wall of the Sylvian for the ventral 
third of its course. In Callorhimts the ventral two-thirds of the 
corresponding fissure becomes submerged. 

The lateral fissure, as in the case of CallorJiinus, is the 
longest fissure in the brain. In PJioca, however, it is confined 
entirely to the dorsal aspect of the cerebrum, and at its caudal 
end it appears to terminate in a widely diverging fork or per- 
haps a small transverse fissure, possibly corresponding to the 
lunate (Wilder) of the cat. Its course is approximately paral- 
lel with the intercerebral cleft and is somewhat tortuous. At 



70 Journal of Comparative Neurology. 

its cephalic end it appears to communicate with the cephaUc 
branch of the supersylvian. This appearance will be discussed 
more fully under the description of the ansate fissure. 

The ectolateral fissure occupies a relatively higher or more 
dorsal and caudal position than in CallorJiiJuis. It is of a more 
secondary character and courses approximately parallel with the 
postsupersylvian. 

The cruciate, unlike that of CallorJiinus, is represented upon 
both the mesal and dorsal aspects. On the left hemicerebrum 
a shallow is present in the dorsal portion not far from the mar- 
gin. No distinct "ursine lozenge" is present here as in Cal- 
lorJiinus. The foreshortened condition of this region may have 
something to do with its absence. 

A well defined postcruciate fissure is present on the left 
side. It presents a zygal (Wilder) or quadriradiate form. A 
slight secondary fissure near the olfactory bulb may represent a 
rudimentary precruciate fissure. 

The superorbital fissure shows a better development than 
in CallorJiinus and similarly has no connection with the rhinal. 
But the opposite end, dissimilarly, extends farther and is over- 
lapped by the olfactory bulb. 

The medilateral is not present in Phoca as a distinct fissure. 
Its location is occupied by a series of short disconnected fis- 
sures. 

The coronal fissure is a relatively longer fissure than in Cal- 
lorJihius but is not so entirely disconnected from adjacent fis- 
sures. Its dorsal end lies caudal to the cruciate. On the left 
hemicerebrum it is separated by a shallow from an apparent 
connection with a continuation of the cephalic branch of the 
supersylvian. On the right hemicerebrum the shallow is sug- 
gested by the interlocking at this point of two submerged but- 
tresses. 

The ansate fissure, while not distinctly represented as an 
independent fissure, would, it seems to me, be indicated by the 
fissure extending from the coronal to the cephalic branch of the 
supersylvian, where, on each hemicerebrum, the interlocking of 
submerged buttresses would again suggest a shallow shutting it 



Fish, Brain of tJic Fur Seal. 71 

off from the branch of the supersylvian, and then continuing to 
the lateral fissure where a slight spur pointing toward the inter- 
cerebral cleft might indicate its separation from the lateral. 
Owen in his figure of the hemicerebrum of PJioca represents a 
corresponding fissure as the coronal. 

Mesal Aspect. There is a slight appearance of the callosal 
fissure in the splenial half of the callosum, but none at all for 
the remaining half. 

The hippocampal fissure is well developed and needs no 
special comment. 

The splenial fissure is well developed and in general is as 
described for CallorJiimis, except that its position is farther re- 
moved from the frontal portion of the cerebrum and that its 
cephalic end cuts the margin and is shown upon the dorsal sur- 
face. The postsplenial has about the same relations as in Callor- 
hinus. 

The fissura sublimica of Kiikenthal^ is poorly represented 
in my specimen of Phoca and is somewhat confused with smaller 
branches and secondary fissures. It lies between the splenial 
and the callosum. Kiikenthal finds this fissure also present in 
Phoca grocnlandica, Phoca barb at a, Macrorhimis leo7iinus and 
Otaria jubata. In CallorJiiniis there was no appearance of this 
fissure whatever. The fissura sublimica anterior of the same 
author is more clearly represented. In my former paper, on 
account of its position dorsal to the callosum, I designated it 
questioningly as the supercallosal. On the left hemicerebrum 
it is well developed and connects with the cruciate. On the 
right side, however, the fissure is independent and much smaller. 
In addition to this fissure, on each hemicerebrum, there is an- 
other dorsal to it and in front of the splenial. In Callorliimis 
I have called it the presplenial. 

The marginal or supersplenial is well shown in Phoca as in 
CallorJiiniis but lies nearer to the dorso-caudal margin, approxi- 
mately parallel with the splenial. In the intervening gyre there 
are a few secondary fissures. 



^ Untersuchun<^en an Walthiereii, 



72 Journal of Comparative Neurology. 

On the meso-ventral surface a fissure corresponding to the 
collateral is also present, but, unlike CallorJiimis, it has connec- 
tion ^\'ith the postrhinal. Iktween the collateral and the post- 
splenial there is another well marked but unnamed fissure which 
is pa'-allel to the former. It corresponds perhaps to the fissure 
in CallorJiinus which I have spoken of tentatively in connection 
with the occipital. 

The genualis and rostralis are represented but the latter 
differs from that in CallorJiinus in being much less developed 
and occupying a more ventral position at a more or less acute 
angle to the genualis. 

URSUS AMERICANUS. 

This brain, while fairly well preserved, had been consider- 
ably mutilated in removal, so that for purposes of illustration 
and reference, a specimen from Ursus thibetianus, kindly loaned 
by Prof. 1). G. Wilder,^ was utilized ; so that while the figures 
of the lateral and mesal aspects are from the latter specimen, 
the description is based almost entirely upon the former. The 
general arrangement of the fissures is similar and the minor de- 
tails need not cause misapprehension. The fissural plan of the 
brain is much like that of the canine, minus the first circumsyl- 
vian arch. 

The olfactory bulbs and crura are far superior in size to 
those of either of the seals. The olfactory fissure is likewise 
well marked. 

The rhinal fissure passes into the Sylvian and continues, 
after forming an angle delimiting a well developed pyriform 
lobe, as the postrhinal and ending freely. The subfissure 
(postica?) in the caudal w^all of the Sylvian extends to and, on 
one side, actually appeared to communicate with the postrhinal. 

Lateral aspect. The Sylvian is directed in the usual dorse- 
caudal direction at the bottom of which is a small and simple 
area representing the insula. There is no appearance of a trans- 



* Papers, chicHy anatomical, presented at the Portland Meeting of the A. 
A. A. S., August, 1S73, ^^re devoted largely to a description of the brains of 
Carnivora. 



Fish, Brain of the Fur Seal. 73 

insular fissure although the presence of a subgyre and subfis- 
sure (postica ?) in the caudal wall of the Sylvian might super- 
ficially indicate it. 

The supersylvian fissure forms a complete arch around the 
Sylvian. There is no indication of a separation of a postsuper- 
sylvian except near the free end of the Sylvian where a branch 
from the supersylvian extends into the adjacent gyre. 

The lateral fissure forms a curve approximately parallel 
with the supersylvian. As compared with PJioca and Callorhimis 
it is much shorter. If the conception of the ectolateral is cor- 
rect, the latter is continuous caudally with the lateral, a slight 
spur indicating the place of probable separation. The ectolat- 
eral extends parallel with the postsupersylvian but its ventral end 
does not reach so far in Ursiis aniericamiSy while in the Thibet 
bear the reverse is the case. 

The ansate fissure is a cephalo-ventral continuation of the 
lateral, a small spur of the latter indicating a point of separa- 
tion. The ansate describes a curve, the convexity pointing 
toward the Sylvian. 

The coronal fissure continues from the ansate and ends 
freely near the superorbital. The convexity of its curve like 
that of the ansate points toward the Sylvian. The point of its 
separation from the ansate is indicated by a spur more marked 
than that between the ansate and the lateral. 

The superorbital, unlike PJioca and CallorJiitms, has a very 
distinct connection with the rhinal fissure at about half of the 
distance from the Sylvian fissure to the olfactory bulb. It curves 
cephalo-dorsad with its convexity pointing cephalad. 

The cruciate fissure is more highly developed than in either 
of the seals. It appears slightly upon the mesal aspect and ex- 
tends obliquely cephalo-laterad on the dorsal surface. Around 
its free end the coronal fissure demarcates a well-formed sigmoid 
gyre. The appearances found in PJioca approximate the condi- 
tions regarding the gyre more than in Callorhimis. 

Between the cruciate and ansate lies the postcruciate fis- 
sure. On the left hemicerebrum it is well marked, on the right 
it is smaller and superficially connected with a minor fissure, 



74 Journal of Comparative Neurology. 

On the right hemiccrcbrum a branch is given off from the 
cruciate extending cephalo-mesad. It is the prccruciate fissure. 
On the left hemicerebrum it is an independent fissure. In 
neither case does it reach the mesal surface. The precruciate 
with the cruciate forms a well-defined triangular area — the " ur- 
sine lozen^re " of Mivart. On the dorsal surface between the 
lateral fissure and the intercerebral cleft there is a well marked 
fissure but it is not as deep as the other fissures. It is the con- 
finis. On the right hemicerebrum a short fissure connects it 
with the lateral. 

The medilateral fissure arises at the caudal end of the ce- 
rebrum near the mesal margin, in much the same position as in 
CallorJiimis and continues down the ventral aspect close to the 
caudal margin. 

Mesal Aspect. The splenial fissure does not reach the dor- 
sal margin as in the case of PJioca and as on one side in Callo- 
rJiimis. Its cephalic end is, also, nearer the caudal end of the 
cerebrum than in either of the other two forms. In this respect 
the fissure occupies an intermediate position in the Phoca. It 
arches around the splenium of the callosum and courses along 
the tentorial surface of the cerebrum as far as the caudo-lateral 
margin, ending eight millimeters from the free end of the post- 
supersylvian. Two or three short branches are given off along 
its course. Beyond the presence of a slight spur there is no 
evidence of a postsplenial fissure, nor of a supersplenial or mar- 
ginal as in the case of the seals. A well developed presplenial 
or fissura sublimica of Kiikenthal is present, resembling that of 
Phoca more than Callorhimis. No distinct fissura sublimica was 
present except in the case of the Thibet bear where a small 
minor fissure held the proper position. 

The genual and rostral fissures were present and occupied 
the same general relation to the cephalic end of the callosum as 
in Callorhimis. The callosal and hippocampal fissures have the 
same general relations as in other forms. 



Fish, Brain of the Fur Seal. 75 

ZALOPHUS CALIFORNIANUS. 

Through the kind permission of Professor Wilder I was 
permitted to remove the brain from this young sea lion. Its 
mother came originally from the Pacific coast and the present 
specimen was found dead in the cage with her while in transit 
to the East and was presumably not far from " term." It meas- 
ured 43 centimeters long and has been in the Cornell museum 
of Vertebrate Zoology for some years. 

The brain was in a fairly good state of preservation and 
was photographed soon after its removal. It was too delicate 
to permit of much manipulation and some of the fissures were 
not sounded as thoroughly as in the other specimens. The cere- 
brum of this specimen does not show the same degree of com- 
plexity relative to the fissuration as indicated by Murie^ in Otaria 
jiibata. A direct comparison of the fissures, however, is not easy 
as the latter author attempts to homologize them with those 
of the human cerebrum. 

The olfactory apparatus is well developed. Not as largely 
as in the bear, however, but greater than either of the seals. The 
rhinal fissure, as in the other forms, is well marked and passes 
caudad into the mouth of the Sylvian fissure. The postrhinal 
is formed from the subfissure (postica ?) and has no connection 
whatever with either the rhinal or Sylvian. 

Late7'al Aspect. The Sylvian is prominent and occupies its 
usual position. In its caudal wall is a subfissure (postica?) and 
subgyre which as in CallorJiinus is continuous on the ventral 
aspect with the pyriform or temporal lobe. 

The supersylvian with its cephalic and caudal portions, the 
pre- and postsupersylvian, is more nearly in accord with the 
condition found in the bear than in either of the seals. It rep- 
resents an intermediate condition between the two. The pre- 
supersylvian lies very close to the Sylvian but does not actually 
enter it as in the seals. Its average distance from it is about 4 
miUimeters ; while the distance from the Sylvian to the post- 



1874. Transactions of the Zoological Society of London. 



7^ Journal of Comparative Neurology. 

supersylvian is four times as great or i6 millimeters. There is 
no sign of disconnection between either the supersylvian and 
the postsupersylvian, or the supersylvian and the presupersyl- 
vian. The supersylvian forks or sends out a branch cephalad 
connecting with the ansate fissure exactly as in PJioca. 

The lateral fissure is relatively to the length of the cere- 
brum shorter than in any other forms. Its cephalic end and its 
relation to the ansate is again exactly the same as in PJioca. On 
the left hemicerebrum the lateral is disconnected at a little 
more than half of its length, by a narrow isthmus. 

The coronal fissure corresponds with that of PJioca, con- 
necting, superficially at least, with the ansate and thus indirectly 
with the cephalic branch of the supersylvian and the lateral. 

The ansate fissure, as has already been intimated, like that 
of PJioca is irregular in its form and connects with the fissures 
above mentioned. 

The ectolateral fissure is quite well down toward the ven- 
tral portion of the cerebrum and as in CallorJiinus appears upon 
the ventral aspect. 

The medilateral fissure is scarcely perceptible on the lateral 
aspect ; it lies exactly along the caudal margin of the hemicere- 
brum as in CallorJiinus and is better seen in a mesal view. 

The cruciate accords, in position and relation, more closely 
with the conditions found in the bear and CallorJiimis; but while 
it reaches to the mesal surface of the hemicerebrum it does not 
cut it as far as in the bear and PJioca. 

The precruciate and the postcruciate fissures are likewise 
present and have exactly the same relations as in the bear and 
CallorJiinus. 

Mesal Aspect. The callosal fissure is well developed. On 
the right hemicerebrum it does not continue around the genu 
as in the left. 

The splenial fissure does not extend as far cephalad as in 
CallorJiinns, nor as far dorsad as in PJioca. It is situated more 
closely to the splenial half of the callosum than in either of 
the preceding or in the bear. A branch is given off in the 
region of the splenium proper which seems comparable to the 



Fish, Brain of the Fur Seal. yj 

postsplenial in the seals. A slight spur in this region in the 
bear may indicate an analogy. 

The presplenial is not represented as a distinct fissure on 
the left hemicerebrum, the only possible suggestion of it being 
a forking at the cephalic end of the splenial. On the right hemi- 
cerebrum a small but distinct fissure lying cephalad of the sple- 
nial may represent the presplenial. 

The marginal fissure is well represented and on both hemi- 
cerebrums cuts the dorsal surface as in CallorJiiims, In PJioca 
although relatively long it does not reach the dorsal margin at 
all. In the bear the marginal fissure is not represented. 

The genual and rostral fissures are but slightly developed 
in this specimen and bear the same relations as in other forms. 

The cruciate fissure shows slightly on the mesal aspect and 
in its relations to the other parts resesembles that of the bear 
more than any of the others. 

FISSURAL INTERPRETATIONS OF OTHER WRITERS. 

The Sylvian fissure, in Phoca at least, has been located as 
a vertical fissure (presupersylvian) which has, for a portion, only, 
of its length, been submerged in the cephalic wall of the true 
Sylvian. Numerous writers have also described this condition 
as the anterior and posterior branches of the Sylvian. The two 
fissures morphologically are entirely distinct. In Hyrax Krueg 
does not represent any indication of a Sylvian fissure whatever. 

The supersylvian is very commonly called the suprasylvian. 
Leuret et Gratiolet have confused this fissure with the lateral 
in Phoca, 

Following Krueg the fissure which is designated as the post- 
supersylvian, is commonly known as the postsylvian of Owen. 
What I have designated as the presupersylvian and which is 
only exceptionally independent, is usually described as the an- 
terior or frontal portion of the supersylvian. 

A fissure corresponding to the coronal is represented by 
Krueg as the presylvian in Phoca. Kiikenthal makes a similar 
representation. Turner in Macrorhinus represents a correspon- 
ding fissure as the presylvian and a branch connecting with it 



78 Journal of Comparative Neurology. 

as the coronal. In TiicJicciis (walrus) he figures as the presyl- 
vian an apparent continuation of the lateral, and represents as 
the coronal an apparent continuation of a third arched fissure 
designated by him as the medilateral. 

The superorbital fissure in carnivora generally is designated 
as the presylvian by many writers. 

The cruciate fissure is shown by Krueg, in PJioca, as exist- 
ing only on the mesal aspect, occuppying the position of the 
presplenial, or anterior sublimica of Kiikenthal. Leuret et 
Gratiolet represent the fissure as seen on the ventral aspect at 
the cephalic end. Other writers place it as usually seen in car- 
nivora at the cephalic end of the dorsal aspect where it may or 
may not reach the mesal surface. 

THE LATERAL VENTRICLE (PARACOELE.) 

On removing the dorsal portion of the hemicerebrum just 
dorsal to the callosum the lateral ventricle is revealed. In the 
bear the cavity bends cephalo-ventrad to form the precornu and 
caudo-latero-ventrad to form the medicornu. The striatum is a 
well defined body forming a portion of the floor of the ventricle 
in the cephalic region. Parallel with the oblique margin of the 
striatum is the fimbrial margin of the hippocamp. Between 
these two margins — the rima (great transverse fissure) the chor- 
oid (para) plexus — a continuation of the velum enters the floor 
of the cavity. The hippocamp pursues its usual curved direc- 
tion in the medicornu. 

In Phoca the lateral ventricle is relatively very much larger 
than in the bear and the parts present quite different relations 
to each other. The striatum is the same as in the bear ; along 
its margin is a well developed plexus, but between this and the 
fimbrial edge of the hippocamp there is an area equally as large 
as the striatum ; this is the optic thalamus, but that portion of 
of it represented in the floor of the cavity presents the same 
general appearance as to its surface (endymal) as do the other 
parts. The supposed delicate endymal membrane extending 
from the plexus to the fimbria has been designated as the para- 
tela by Wilder. The hippocamp, then, is removed some little 



Fish, Brain of the Fur Seal. 79 

distance from the striatum and arches around the surface of the 
thalamus in a ventral direction. Caudal to the hippocamp, the 
cavity is about as largely represented, and in size forms a dispro- 
portionately large postcornu. Along the mesal wall just caudal 
to the hippocamp is an ental ridge correlated with an ectal de- 
pression — the splenial fissure. This is comparable to the calcar 
or hippocampus minor of the anthropoid and human brains. It 
is larger in proportion than either of the above. The splenial 
in this case for a part of its course at least is, therefore, a total 
(Wilder) or complete (Cunningham) fissure since the whole 
thickness of the parietes is involved ; the ental elevation being 
correlated with the fissural depression. In this specimen of 
PJioca, then, we have two total fissures, the hippocampal (al- 
ways) and a portion of the splenial. 

The conditions just described might naturally suggest a 
homology with the ape and human calcar and that the splenial 
fissure, in this seal possessing a postcornu, might be homolo- 
gized with the occipital or calcarine fissure in man. A question 
might properly arise here as to which fissure it might be homol- 
ogized with. In the human foetus the occipital is a total fissure, 
but loses its totality (ental elevation) in the adult. Its position 
might favor its homology with the splenial, for if the latter 
were rotated farther caudad it would come to occupy approxi- 
mately the same position as the occipital. To homologize with 
the calcarine we would have to imagine a still farther rotation 
of the splenial. The calcarine is a total fissure throughout life 
and is the correlative of the calcar. Some doubt may therefore 
be expressed, assuming the homology to be reasonable, whether 
this hippocampus minor represents the occipital eminence — a 
foetal condition in the human brain, or the calcar — a structure 
persistent in the adult. 

The relative disproportion in the growth of the caudal or 
occipital portion of the cerebrum may have some bearing in 
accounting for the presence of the postcornu. Tiedemann in 
his figure of the lateral ventricle of Phoca gives no indication 
whatever of a postcornu. 

In Callorhimis the conditions resemble more closely those 



8o Journal of Comparative Neurology. 

in the bear ; the rima is narrow and the thalamus does not ap- 
pear at all in the floor of the ventricle. A slight caudal spur 
of the cavity at the medicornu represents the postcornu. The 
splenial fissure, so to speak, just escapes the cavity, lying im- 
mediately caudal to it. 

In the walrus Turner^ represents a dissection of this cavity 
but shows no indication of a postcornu, but in the text he states: 
** where the cavity of the ventricle curved downward and out- 
ward into the horn, an indication of a recess was seen in its pos- 
terior horn, but it did not amount to a cornu and there was no 
elevation which could be called a hippocampus minor. " 

Murie,^ on the form and structure of the Manatee, figures 
a well developed postcornu. He states that, " there is an un- 
doubted posterior cornu, a fully developed hippocampus minor 
and an eminence I am inclined to recognize as eminentia collat- 
eralis. " The same author, On the Anatomy of the Sea Lion, 
Otaria jtibata, figures a more extensive postcornu than is repre- 
sented in the manatee and describes it as ** stretching backwards 
and outwards with a very regular sweeping arch, and goes well 
back into the occipital lobe, terminating in a shallow tapering 
extremity. The eminentia collateralis is not distinctly defined ; 
but what appears to represent the outwardly bulging hippo- 
campus minor has a length of 0.7 of an inch, and at widest is 
0.3 to 0.4 broad." 

Wilder in the Anatomical Technology, in indicating the 
lines of inquiry likely to be most productive of results in the 
homology of the human and feline fissures, states that "be- 
tween the ordinary carnivora and the monkeys are two groups 
whose brains should be studied with especial care ; the seals 
have a rudimentary postcornu and occipital lobe, and these parts 
are said to be developed in the Lemurs which have affinities with 
both the carnivora and the primates." 

In none of the accounts have I seen any direct mention of 



' '84. Turner, Report on the Seals collected during the Voyage of II. 
M. S. Challenger in the years 1873-1876. 

"^ 1874. Transactions of the Zoological Society of London. 



Fish, Brain of the Fur Seal 8 1 

the correlation of the splenial fissure with the calcar in these 
aquatic forms. This fact, even if it be of no direct use for ho- 
mology, is, at least, interesting. 

MONACHUS TROPICALIS. 

In August, 1897, I was fortunate to obtain through the 
courtesy of Dr. A. H. Hassall, Washington, D. C, two brains, 
from male and female specimens of the West Indian Seal Mon- 
achus U'opicalis. They arrived at an exceedingly opportune 
time for comparison with the other brains dealt with in this ar- 
ticle. A study of their form and fissural relations throw much 
light on some of the points which seemed quite aberrant in 
Fhoca when compared with Callorhinus alone. 

The general form of the brain would suggest a position in- 
termediate between the fur seal and Phoca particularly in the 
frontal region which is somewhat foreshortened and broader than 
in Callorhinus. The caudal portion of the cerebrum is much 
elongated, noticed particularly upon the mesal aspect when 
measured from the splenium of the callosum ; as if, perhaps, to 
compensate for the foreshortened frontal region. The cerebrum 
also shows a slightly greater overlapping of the cerebellum. 
The olfactory bulb and crus resemble the corresponding parts 
in Phoca, but show a slightly greater development. 

Fissures. Postica. In all four hemicerebrums, this fissure 
sends a branch to the surface, thus appearing superficially as a 
branch of the Sylvian. The postica is less easily distinguished 
in Monachiis than in any of the other forms, as it is submerged 
practically to the bottom of the Sylvian fissure. In Callorhinus 
there is a branch corresponding to that of MonacJms but it does 
not extend deeply enough to connect with the postica. 

The postrhinal appears as the merest trace of a fissure and 
has a very superficial connection with the postica. 

The Sylvian fissure. It is in the Sylvian region that we 
get numerous clues to the intermediate position of Monachus. 
In the brain of the female the Sylvian has practically the same 
direction as in Callorhinus. In the male, the true Sylvian really 
branches cephalad, although there is a superficial extension in 



82 Journal of Comparative Neurology. 

the usual dorso-caudal direction. Apparently some unusual 
conditions exist here, which may perhaps be accounted for by 
the nearly complete disappearance of the postica. 

The presupersylvian resembles the corresponding fissure 
in PJioca regarding its extreme vertical position and apparent 
union with the Sylvian for only the ventral third of its course. 
It differs from PJioca in not being disconnected from the su- 
persylvian. 

The supersylvian fissure resembles that of PJioca in extend- 
ing a branch of good size to connect with the ansate. 

Postsupersylvian. In the two hemicerebrums of the male 
there was a connection between the supersylvian and the post- 
supersylvian much as in PJioca. In the hemicerebrums of the 
female there was an entire disconnection of these fissures. 

The cruciate fissure more than in any of the others resem- 
bled that of PJioca. It forms a good intermediate stage be- 
tween CallorJiitms and PJioca. As with PJioca the fissure is rep- 
resented on the mesal surface as much, if not more than upon 
the dorsal. In the left hemicerebrums of both brains the cru- 
ciate is apparently continuous with the splenial. Upon the 
right hemicerebrums there is no such connection. 

Precruciate. In all four hemicerebrums the precruciate 
extends over upon the mesal surface for some little distance. 
It is more largely represented upon the dorsal surface and its 
lateral end makes a very decided curve toward the coronal fis- 
sure. There is almost a superficial connection between the 
cruciate and the precruciate. The conditions in PJioca indicate 
that such a connection has occurred even to the extent of their 
almost complete mergence into eachother. 

" Ursine Lozenge." This area is, with the exception of 
PJioca where it is undistinguishable, smaller than in any other 
forms. It is nothing more than a narrow gyre, situated at a 
slightly lower level than the adjacent gyres, suggesting a prob- 
able preparation for the loss of its identity in PJioca. 

Postcruciate. In MonacJms this fissure was the least satis- 
factorily represented than in any of the other forms. In the 
two hemicerebrums, it does not seem to be represented at all, 



FiSH,'^ Brain of the Fur Seal. 83 

unless we interpret a slight branch from the cruciate as repre- 
senting it. In the right hemicerebrums the fissure is distinctly 
present but is very small. 

The splenial accords more closely with PJioca in its posi- 
tion, reaching the mid-dorsal region instead of extending farther 
cephalad as in Callo7'himis. It sends off a branch corresponding 
to the postsplenial as in other brains. 

The presplenial is well represented in the two right hemi- 
cerebrums, but in the two left it appears to connect the true 
splenial with the cruciate. The interlocking of submerged but- 
tresses at the proper points indicates a superficial connection 
merely. 

The marginal fissure is more poorly developed than in any 
of the other forms except the bear. A series of short inter- 
rupted fissures takes its place. 

A well marked collateral fissure is present and resembles 
the corresponding fissure in Callorhinus very closely. 

Postcornu. Perhaps the most important point in connect- 
ing MonacJius with Phocay is a very well developed postcornu. 
Callorhinus shows the merest trace of one and in the bear it is 
absent. In Monachus it does not go so far as in Phoca, a 
great portion of the caudal wall being solid. The floor of the 
postcornu in Monachus is quite distinctly convex This convex- 
ity of the internal surface is found to be correlated with an ex- 
ternal depression, the lower or ventral portion of the splenial 
fissure. At the more vertical portion of the fissure, namely, 
opposite the caudal end of the callosum, the splenial fissure 
loses its totality and and becomes an ordinary fissure for the 
remainder of its upward course. The postcornu stops at the 
level of the depth of the splenial fissure in the callosal region. 
We have not, therefore, as in Phoca, a well developed calcar 
(hippocamus minor). The internal convex surface already 
spoken of in connection with the ventral portion of the splenial 
fissure, offers a suggestion as to the inception of the calcar 
which finds its fulfillment in Phoca. 



84 Journal of CoMPARAtivE Neurologv. 

GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS. 

The average canine brain, as a matter of convenience, may 
be accepted as a simple type of a carnivore brain. The fissures 
are clearly demarcated and there is an absence of much branch- 
ing or secondary fissuration. 

Around the Sylvian there are three arched fissures separ- 
ating the cortical substance into four distinct folds or gyres. In 
the brains of cats and occasionally in dogs we find that the 
arched fissure nearest the Sylvian is not a complete one ; that 
only the pillars are represented, the keystone being absent. 

In Hyena and Protcles the frontal portion of this arch is 
wanting (Krueg) but the caudal portion, fissura postica, is well 
represented. Correlative with this state of affairs the postsuper- 
sylvian, as compared with the presupersylvian, is situated at 
least twice as far from the Sylvian fissure. 

In certain others of the carnivora no trace of the first arch 
or Sylvian gyre with its its limiting fissure (anterior-postica) is 
at all present. The first arch with its fissure has disappeared, 
apparently swallowed up by the Sylvian. There are represented 
then on the lateral aspect only two arched fissures, the supersyl- 
vian and on the lateral aspect only the three gyres which they 
separate. In those forms in which only the two arched fissures are 
present, if the distance from the frontal portion of the super- 
sylvian to the Sylvian be compared with the distance from the 
latter to the postsupersylvian, it will generally be found to be 
less in the former, and this becomes much more emphasized in- 
the case of some of the bears, where the frontal portion of an 
undoubted supersylvian almost enters the Sylvian fissure. 

In his desciption of the brain of the Polar bear, Ursus 
maritimiLSy Turner says: ** On opening up the Sylvian fissure I 
found to my surprise that a definite arched convolution was 
completely concealed within it. It was separated from the convo- 
lution which bounded the Sylvian fissure by a deep fissure which 
was also concealed. Its anterior limb, not quite so bulky as the 
posterior, was continued into the supraorbital area immediately 
external to the rhinal fissure and to the outer root of the olfac- 



Fish, Brain of tite Ftir Seal. 85 

tory peduncle. Its posterior limb reached the postrhinal fissure 
and the lobus hippocampi. I could not but think that we had 
here, more completely than either in the walrus or seals, a sink- 
ing into the Sylvian fissure of the convolution which ought to 
have bounded it, so that both the Sylvian convolution properly 
so called, and the suprasylvian fissure were concealed within it. 
If this be a proper explanation of the arrangement, then the 
three convolutions on the cranial aspect would be saggital, me- 
diolateral, and suprasylvian ; whilst the two complete curved fis- 
sures between them would be the mediolateral and lateral." 

The question quite naturally arises if the fissure concealed 
in the Sylvian may not be the equivalent of the anterior-postica 
of Krueg and the two remaining visible on the cranial surface, 
the supersylvian and lateral. 

The medilateral of other authors does not attain the size 
nor continued length in the frontal direction as ascribed to the 
mediolateral by Turner. And furthermore there is in some 
forms, as in the seals, a well defined medilateral in addition to 
the two principal fissures. 

In a specimen of Ursus americanus, I had the good fortune 
to discover a stage one step beyond that described by Professor 
Turner. On opening the Sylvian fissure I found in its caudal 
wall a completely submerged fissure, with a remnant of the Syl- 
vian gyre which might possibly be mistaken for the insula. A 
true insula, although small, is present. This submerged fissure 
I take to be the disappearing vestige of the ectosylvian (Owen) 
or anterior-postica (Krueg). A study of foetal bear brains with 
reference to the distinct appearance of the first circumsylvian 
arch (anterior-postica) would be most important in this condition. 
It would seem then that the condition thus described in the 
polar bear and American bear would represent the method of 
disappearance, rather than the appearance, of the first circum- 
sylvian arch and prepare us for the conditions that we find in 
the sea lion (Zalophus) and the seals {Phoca and Callorhinus). 

In the sea lion the conditions regarding the frontal portion 
of the Sylvian gyre are intermediate between the bears and 
seals. The presupersyluian fissure approaches very closely to 



86 Journal of Comparative Neurology. 

the Sylvian fissure and the intervening- portion of the Sylvian 
gyre, besides being narrower than in the bear, has also sunk 
slighly lower than the adjacent surface as if prophesying the 
conditions found in the seals. 

In the seals there appears to be some evidence, if the inter- 
pretation as to the frontal portion of the supersylvian fissure be 
correct, that after breaking up into branches with perhaps some 
disconnection of its parts, it shows a tendency to follow the ex- 
ample of the anterior-postica fissure, because in Phoca, at least, 
the supersylvian bifurcates a little beyond the free end of the 
Sylvian, one branch forming a well defined arch around it, the 
other branch passing on in the frontal region. The branch, 
however, which forms the arch is not a long one but it extends 
to and superficially connects with a vertical fissure which for half 
its distance is submerged in the frontal wall of the Sylvian, and 
crops out again on the ventral aspect of the brain. This con- 
dition holds for both hemicerebrums of Phoca. CallorJdims 
throws a little light on this matter. In the right hemicerebrum 
the supersylvian is clearly continuous with the vertical fissure 
submerged in the frontal wall of the Sylvian but gives off a very 
short frontal branch. Superficially it is continuous with the post- 
supersylvian but a shallow at this point indicates a partial sep- 
aration. The direct continuity in the depth of the supersylvian 
with the vertical fissure would seem to point to the fact that the 
latter, after all, was nothing more than the frontal portion of 
the supersylvian, namely the presupersylvian. 

In the left hemicerebrum the parts are a little more com- 
plicated. The postsupersylvian is entirely separated, the super- 
sylvian is entirely distinct from the frontal portion and is quite 
irregular and branching in its course, but mainly vertical in its 
direction. 

Thus, taking the canine brain as exemplifying a simple fis- 
sural pattern and passing through the Felidae and Ursidae and 
sea lion to the seals where the fissures are more numerous and 
complicated by the presence of branches of considerable size, 
and more or less disconnection of some of the principal fissures, 
we may arrive at some understanding of the relationship and 



Fish, Brain of the Fur Seal. Sy 

changes effected in passing from simple to complex conditions. 

In the general form of the brains that of the sea lion 
seemed to bear closer resemblance to that of the bear than either 
Callorhimis or PJioca — the latter the least of all. The elongated 
and narrow frontal portion of the brain as seen in the bear is 
represented in PJioca by a foreshortened and broadened region, 
less marked in CallorJiinus and still less in Zalophiis, 

The development of the olfactory lobes is also interesting. 
They attain their highest growth in the bear, next in ZalophuSy 
then CallorJiinus and least in PJioca. 

The triangular area on each hemicerebrum located between 
the cruciate and precruciate fissures and the intercerebral cleft, 
designated by Mivart as the ursine lozenge and believed by him 
to be of considerable importance in indicating a phylogentic 
relationship between the Pinnipedia and the ursine group of 
carnivora, was developed equally well in ZalopJius and Callor- 
Jiinus. In PJioca it was not observable, althougn Turner states 
that in this form it is present but rudimentary and concealed in 
the mesal fissure of the cerebrum. 

The length of the lateral fissure in CallorJiinus is somewhat 
unexpected and in relation resembles a continuous lateral and 
ectolateral of the bear. In the sea lion and PJioca the lateral is 
a relatively short fissure. In all but the bear there is an inde- 
pendent ectolateral fissure but it is not so satisfactorily devel- 
oped in PJioca. 

The postrhinal fissure shows an interesting variation in the 
different forms. In CallorJiinus and ZalopJius it has no connec- 
tion with the rhinal or Sylvian, but it is a direct continuation of 
the subfissure — postica. In Ursus the subfissure may occasion- 
ally reach it but as a rule it is distinct and the postrhinal con- 
tinues as an elongation of the rhinal. In PJioca the separation 
of the subfissure and the postrhinal is still more marked, so that 
the rhinal and the postrhinal are practically different parts of 
one "and the same fissure, differentiated from each other by the 
presence of the Sylvian. 

The presupersylvian fissure is directly continuous with the 
supersylvian in Ursus, it is likewise continuous in ZalopJius and 



88 Journal of Comparative Neurology. 

in Callorhimis except upon the left hemicerebrum of the pup. 
In Phoca the two fissures are distinctly separated 

The postsupersylvian is continuous with the supersylvian 
in Ursiis and ZalopJms but separated in Callorhmus, They are 
apparently continuous in Phoca, but a dorso-caudal branch and 
the presence of submerged buttresses at this point of junction 
would indicate that there was some attempt at separation. 

In the bear there is no elongation of the paracoele to form 
a postcornu ; in the sea lion Murie finds a distinct postcornu 
present ; in Callorhimis it is quite rudimentary ; in Phoca Tiede- 
mann represents the paracoele with no appearance whatever of 
a postcornu. My own specimen, which so far as I know is nor- 
mal, shows a postcornu relatively as large or larger than in the 
primate brain with a distinct calcar or hippocampus minor in 
which a portion of the splenial appears as a total fissure. 

With the exception of the bear, concerning which I have 
no 'data, and the additional brain from an adult Callorhimis and 
Monachiis all of my material was from specimens not more than 
one year of age. It is believed, judging from a comparison of 
the brain of the young with that of the adult Callorhimis as to 
bulk and complexity of fissuration, that comparatively little or 
no change occurs, especially in the latter respect. 

Mr. Lucas, who had casts of the cranial cavities prepared 
from the male and female fur seal, finds but slight difference in 
the size of the cavities, notwithstanding the fact that the bulk 
of the body of the male is about four times as great as that of 
the female. Of the representatives of the five groups examined, 
the brain of Calloj'himis shows a greater number of minor fissures 
and a more intricate arrangement and branching of larger fis- 
sures. With regard to the ground plan of the fundamental fis- 
sures, and allowing for the difference in the shape of the brains, 
that of the eared seals, Callorhimis and Zalophus, approximates 
in general more closely to that of the ursine carnivora than does 
Phoca, The latter, or earless seal, in some respects, appears 
aberrant. The arrangement of the cruciate and postrhinal fis- 
sures would seem to link it with the canine and feline carnivora ; 
while the peculiar development of the occipital region and the 
large development of the postcornu with its calcar point toward 
primate conditions. The group of lemurs is also said to pos- 
sess a postcornu and to have affinities with both the carnivora 
and the primates. As a matter of convenience a table of the 
more interesting regions in the representatives of the different 
groups examined is herewith appended. 



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90 



Journal of Comparative Neurology. 



DESCRIPTION OF PLATES. 



REFERENCE LETTERS. 



ans. — ansate fissure. 

d. — buttress. 

cal. — callosum. 

calc. — calcar. 

cf. — confinis fissure. 

<r/. — callosal fissure. 

col. — collateral fissure. 

cor. — coronal fissure. 

cr. — cruciate fissure. 

^'/. — ectolateral fissure. 

f. — fimbria. 

g. — genual fissure. 

hip. — hippocampus. 

/. — lateral fissure. 

marg. — marginal fissure. 

mc. — medicornu . 

ml. — medilateral fissure. 

pc, — postcornu. 



per. — postcruciate fissure. 

//. — plexus. 

pre. — precornu. 

prer. — precruciate fissure. 

prh. — postrhinal fissure. 

prsp. — presplenial fissure. 

prss. — presupersylvian fissure. 

psp. — postsplenial fissure. 

pss. — postsupersylvian fissure. 

r. — rostral fissure. 

rh. — rhinal fissure. 

so. — superorbital fissure. 

sp. — splenial fissure. 

str. — striatum. 

Syl. — Sylvian fissure. 

ss. — supersylvian fissure. 

th. — thalamus. 

tir. — ursine lozenge. 



PLATE X. 

Fig, J . The ventral aspect of the brain of the fur seal Callorhimis ursimis. 
On each side of the cerebellum is a depression into which fits the petrosal por- 
tion of the temporal bone. 

Fig. 2. The dorsal aspect of the brain showing the cerebellum largely 
concealed by the cerebrum. 

Fig. J. The left lateral aspect of the cerebrum of a young specimen. 

Fig. 4. The right lateral aspect of the cerebrum of an adult male Callo- 
rhinus. 

^^S' S' ^^^^ mesal aspect of the right hemicerebrum. 
Fig. 6. The mesal aspect of the left hemicerebrum. 



PLATE XI. 

Fig. I. The ventral aspect of the brain of the haired seal, PJioea vittilina, 
slightly modified from Tiedemann's figure. 

Fig. 2. The dorsal aspect of the cerebrum of Phoca vittili7ia, after Tiede- 
mann. 

Fig. J. The left lateral aspect of the cerebrum. 

Fig. 4. The right lateral aspect of the cerebrum. 

Fig. J. The mesal aspect of the right hemicerebrum. 

Fig. 6. The mesal aspect of the left hemicerebrum. 



Fish, Bravi of the Fur Seal. 91 

PLATE XII. 

Fig. I . The left lateral aspect of the cerebrum of the sea lion, Zalopktis 
calif ornianiis. 

Fig. 2. The right lateral aspect of the cerebrum of Zalophns. 

^^S' 3' The mesal aspect of the right hemicerebrum. 

Fig. ^. The mesal aspect of the left hemicerebrum. 

^^S- 5' The left lateral aspect of the cerebrum of Ursus thibetianus . 

Fig. 6. The mesal aspect of the right hemicerebrum of Urstis. 

Fig. 7. Dissection of the left hemicerebrum of Callorhimis, showing the 
lateral ventricle with a very rudimentary postcornu. 

Fig. 8. Dissection of the left hemicerebrum of Phoca vitulina^ showing 
the presence of the calcar and large postcornu in the lateral ventricle. 

Fig. g. Dissection of the right hemicerebrum of Monachiis tropicalis show- 
ing a postcornu of intermediate size. 

PLATE XIII. 
Fig. I . The ventral aspect of the brain of a female Monachus tropicalis. 
Fig. 2. The dorsal aspect of the brain of a female Monachus. 
Fig. J. The left lateral aspect of the brain of a male Monachus. 
Fig. 4. The right lateral aspect of the brain of a female Monachus. 
Fig. 5. The mesal aspect of the left half of the brain of a female Monachus. 



JOURNAL CF COMPARATIVE NEUROLOGY. Vol. VIII. 



PLATE X. 






JOURNAL OF COMPARATIVE NEUROLOGY. Vol. VIII. 



PLATE XI 






r PF dri 



JOURNAL OF COMPARATIVE NEUROLOGY. Vol. VIM. 



PLATE XII. 



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pss 



JOURNAL OF COMPARATIVE NEUROLOGY. Vol. VIIL 



PLATE XIIL 




THE NERVE CELL AS A UNIT.^ 
By Pierre A. Fish, D.Sc, D.V.S., 

Ithaca, New York, 
With 7 Text-figures. 

The sciences of morphology and physiology, perhaps more 
than any others, were of slow development. Their early years 
were enshrouded in mysticism and magic. Progress was retarded 
largely by theological opposition associated with superstition. 
The ancients believed that the soul was slow in leaving the body 
and that the latter should not, therefore, be used for dissection 
at once. The period allotted for this migration of the soul, 
left the body in anything but a fit state for investigation. This 
opposition did not extend to chemistry and other sciences, 
which, at that time, were in a flourishing condition. 

With the renaissance there came a renewed interest in anat- 
omy, and in Italy it was decreed that one body should be dis- 
sected annually at the universities. This, curiously enough, 
was done by a barber's assistant with a razor. 

There was a time when it was the custom to administer to 
the inner, as well as to the outer, ills of mankind. Barbers 
were particularly adept at bleeding, and combined the science 
of phlebotomy with that of shaving. To advertise this pro- 
fession they erected signs in the form of poles wrapped around 
with red and white bandages — the red to indicate the bleeding, 
and the white, the soapy lather. We must, doubtless, look 
upon our modern barber poles as heirlooms of this ancient and 
honorable profession, deprived, to some extent, of their old 
time significance. 

Because the sphere was accepted as the symbol of perfec- 
tion by the ancients, Plato regarded the more or less globular 



1 Read at the quarterly meeting of the Cayuga County Medical Society, 
Auburn, N. Y., Feb. 10, i8q8. 



lOO Journal of Comparative Neurology. 

head as the seat of intelligence and perception. With slow 
gradations the apparent fantastic and irregular form of the 
wrinkled brain surface has been systematized into a general 
ground-plan. Segments have been differentiated and a fissural 
pattern for the cerebrum has been formulated. Deeper than the 
surface, however, there is encountered a bewildering maze of 
cells and fibers, the intricate arrangement and complex relations 
of which have at the present time, only begun to be under- 
stood. 

In the achievement of a great discovery, many are prone to 
overlook the factors by means of which it is made possible. The 
discovery of a new planet very justly brings great renown to 
the discoverer, — we usually stop at that and take no cognizance 
of the wonderful mechanism of the telescope, the laws of astron- 
my, and other accessories that co-operate in the grand result. 
And so it has been with our knowledge of the structure of the 
nervous system, great as it is today but at the same time inade- 
quate. The results of the last ten years which have so com- 
pletely revolutionized our conceptions of the nerve elements 
were possible only through improvements in microscopical ap- 
paratus and technique, and the improvement of histological 
methods. With the additional knowledge gained from the new 
methods, there must of necessity occur change in the termin- 
ology. The old notion of a nerve cell (justified by the old 
methods) that it consisted merely of a cell body with its en- 
closed nucleus and nucleolus is no longer tenable. Important 
as are these parts to the nutrition and activity of the cell, no 
less important to the full attainment of its function is the pres- 
ence of its various appendages. 

The Golgi-Cajal method is too well known to require any 
description. The formation of a silver-bichromate deposit in or 
upon the nerve cell and its processes has furnished us with pic- 
tures of these elements, which for beauty and clearness of out- 
line surpass anything that has preceded it. The results furnish 
us with at least a workable hypothesis regarding nervous phe- 
nomena which before was merely conjecture. 

This method has shown, and accumulated evidence seems 



Fish, The Nerve Cell as a Uftit. 10 1 

to confirm it, that there is complete morphological indepen- 
dence of the nerve elements, with perhaps certain exceptions, in 
rare cases, where a direct anastomosis of one nerve cell with 
another has been described, as in the battery of the torpedo and 
also in certain of the sense organs, as noted by Dogiel, Ayers, 
Masius and others. This morphological isolation of the ele- 
ments does not preclude the idea of physiological continuity 
which must of necessity exist. 

This isolation of elements has led to the production of the 
term neuron (Waldyer '91), neurone (Van Gehuchten '93), 
neurocyte (Fish '94, after an unknown French writer), neura 
(Rauber '94) and neure (Baker '96), to signify the nerve unit, 
including the cell body with all its appendages. The term 
neurocyte has been suggested in this connection because its lit- 
eral meaning is a nerve cell and includes not merely the cell 
body, which from custom we regard as the equivalent of a nerve 
cell, but all of its appendages as well, just as in speaking of the 
leucocyte, we include the various extensions from the cell mass. 
The analogy may be carried still farther for under certain special 
conditions w^e may conceive that the pseudopodia of the leuco- 
cyte may be considerably extended and attenuated and from the 
juxtaposition of numerous other elements lose, or partially lose, 
their powers of retraction and movement ; under such condi- 
tions we may consider the neurocyte comparable with the leuco- 
cyte so far as form is concerned. 

The appendages of the cells, with perhaps the exception of 
those of the spinal ganglia, appear to fall naturally into two 
categories ; those which collect or convey the impulse to the 
cell, cellipetal processes or dendrites, and those which discharge 
or carry impulses away from the cell, the cellifugal processes or 
neurites (axis-cylinders). 

Along with our increasing knowledge of the form of neuro- 
cytes there have been contributed new facts bearing upon their 
activity. For our purpose, we may consider the neurocyte as 
made up of a mass of granular protoplasm, with more or less 
branching appendages, containing a large nucleus of a reticu- 
lated character enclosing, usually, a prominent nucleolus. We 



tdi Journal of Comparative Neurology. 

have a bit of material protoplasm similar to that of other body 
cells, and yet for a long time any structural change due to the 
activity of the nerve cell eluded the keen vision of investigators. 
It has been said that the secretion of a gland cell is of a ma- 
terial character; that of a muscle cell, mechanical energy and we 
might naturally expect to find in these tissues, changes demon- 
strable by the microscope ; but the secretion of a nerve cell is 
consciousness which is not exactly material, and its effect upon 
the cell is too subtle to leave a trace. Hodge ^ in his fatigue 
experiments extending over a period of four or five years, has 
shown the fallacy of this view. His experiments dealing with 
artificial and normal fatigue were performed in a most faithful 
and conscientious manner on a wide range of forms with conclu- 
sive results, the most of them having been confirmed by later 
investigators. 






Fig. 1, Fig. 2. Fig. 3. 

J^z^s. /, 2 and 3, after Hodge. Only the cell bodies are shown. Fig. i, 
represents the normal cell body with its large reticulated nucleus and the chro- 
matin diffused throughout the cytoplasm. Fig. 2, shows the effects of fatigue, 
the nucleus having become shrunken and irregular in outline, with a surround- 
ing area devoid of chromatin. The peripheral portion of the cytoplasm is also 
poor in chromatin. Fig. 3, showing vacuolation of the cytoplasm as the ef- 
fect of fatigue. 

For the artificial fatigue experiments the spinal ganglion 
cells were chosen and the nerve connecting with the ganglion 
was subjected to a weak electrical stimulation for a given length 
of time. The spinal ganglion of the opposite side was removed 
without stimulation and used as a control in the experiment, 
the treatment of the two ganglia being identical after they were 
removed from the body. In the fatigued cells he found slight 
shrinkage in size, with vacuolation of the protoplasm. In the 
nucleus there was a marked decrease in size, nearly 50% ; a 
change from a smooth and round to a jagged, irregular out- 



* Jour. Morphology. Vol. VII. Pages 95—164. 1S92. 



Fish, ThcNcn^c Cell as a Unit. 103 

line ; and a loss or condensation of the open reticulated appear- 
ance. The control ganglion showed none of these changes. 
If, after stimulation, the cells were permitted to rest and then 
examined, these changes were not apparent. For the study of 
normal fatigue, certain birds and bees were examined, some 
of them were killed before entering their daily routine, while 
their cells were presumably as yet in a state of rest ; others 
were killed just at night-fall after the completion of their day's 
work. A comparison of those killed in the morning with 
those killed in the evening, showed in the latter changes as 
marked as those produced by artificial fatigue. To make the 
evidence still stronger, and to show that the effects were not 
the result of histological reagents, it remained for Dr. Hodge 
to study the living cell. For this purpose he chose the cells 
of the sympathetic ganglia of the frog. Two frogs were pre- 
pared in exactly the same way, except that one received a weak 
electrical stimulation while the other did not. The unstimu- 
lated frog showed no change, while the nucleus of the cells of 
the stimulated frog showed very marked shrinkage and irregu- 
larity of outline. Certain well defined changes in the constitu- 
tion of the nerve cells of very old persons as compared with the 
newly born have also been demonstrated. Hodge has shown 
that fatigue effects occur in brain cells as well as those of the 
spinal ganglia. 

As early as 1884, Flesch noted differences in cells in their 
reaction to staining reagents due to internal modifications as an 
effect of their functional activity, and according to this affinity 
for color he designated the cells as chromophile and chromo- 
phobe. 

Vas ('92 ) has demonstrated changes in the cells of the cer- 
vical ganglia, due to their functional activity, and confirms, in 
the main, the points that have just been stated. As a prelim- 
inary result of this activity Vas has further noted that there is, 
at first, a swelling of the cell. This has also been confirmed by 
Mann ('94) who has extended the observations to the motor 
cells of the spinal cord and the sensory cells of the retina of the 
dog. From his researches, Mann concludes that during rest, 



104 Journal of Comparative Neurology. 

several chromatic materials are stored up in the nerve cell and 
that these materials are used up by it during the performance 
of its function ; that activity is accompanied by an increase in 
the size of the cells, the nuclei and the nucleoli of the sympa- 
thetic, ordinary motor and sensory ganglion cells ; that fatigue 
of the nerve cell is accompanied by the shriveling of the nucleus 
and probably also of the cell and by the formation of a diffuse 
chromatic material in the nucleus. Lugaro ('95 ) confirms the 
observations of Mann. 

Cellular changes of such a radical character, as has been 
shown above, may be the result of perfectly normal functions 
and disappear after a period of rest. How important is it, then, 
before discriminating between that which may be perfectly nor- 
mal and that which is abnormal, to know thoroughly the effects 
incident to natural activity. 

In connection with the matter of electrical excitation of the 
nervous system, the question naturally arises, since we have 
such complete evidence from an experimental standpoint, what 
will be the result of the application of a fatal current of electric- 
ity? Will a very strong current applied for a few minutes af- 
fect the structural character of the nerve cells in a manner sim- 
ilar to those stimulated by a weak current for a very long time ? 
As opportunities have presented there have come to me por- 
tions of the brain and myel of four persons executed by elec- 
tricity, as well as from a horse struck dead by a live wire. In 
the first case, designated as W, a portion of the oblongata, the 
location of so many vital centers, was carefully studied. The 
number and size of the vacuoles in the cytoplasm were astonish- 
ing. In all, however, the nucleus appeared full and regular, al- 
though the cytoplasm in some of the cells seems to have become 
completely transformed into vacuoles. 

In the second case, L, examination was made of the same 
region and here no abnormal change of any kind could be de- 
tected. The cells were full and plump as were also the nuclei 
and the nucleoli, and the cytoplasmic chromatin showed no evi- 
dence of disintegration or disappearance. A portion of the 
cortex was also examined and in both the large and the small 



Fish, The Nerve Cell as a Unit. io$ 

pyramidal cells a very considerable amount of vacuolation ap- 
peared, especially in the apical dendrites, and occasionally in 
the body of the cell. 

In the third case, B, only a small portion of the cerebel- 
lum was studied. It required considerable search and patience 
to find in these sections any distinct structural change of the 
cells. After the examination of many sections two Purkinje 
cells were found, each of which showed the presence of a small 
vacuole. 

The fourth case, C, required more than one current to 
cause his death. The pyramidal cells of the cortex were also 
examined and those of the oblongata to a lesser extent. Here 
also there was evidence of vacuolation in the apical dendrites of 
the pyramidal cells, while the others, including those of the ob- 
longata, so far as examined, were perfectly normal. 

In the case of the horse the injury was inflicted at the 
shoulder, differing thus from the others in point of contact with 
the electricity. No unusual appearances were detected in the 
neurocytes. 

I have ventured to present these results, incomplete as 
they are. If they do nothing more, they will, I think, empha- 
size the importance of a working knowledge of the changes that 
may occur in a neurocyte as a result of its legitimate processes. 
The vacuolation of the cell body and of the nucleus is described 
by many to be due to pathological causes of various kinds, 
among which may be mentioned, insanity, alcoholism, epilepsy, 
as well as the action of various toxins and alkaloids. As has 
been shown by Hodge and others, many of the described path- 
ological changes may be duplicated by normal processes, and 
these, so far as possible, should be eliminated before rendering 
a decided opinion. 

Bearing upon the matter of the rapidity with which effects 
may be produced upon the nerve cells as a result of shock are 
recent experiments of Parascondolo ('98 ) ^ who produced upon 
guinea pigs a condition of shock by striking some of them upon 



Arch, de Physiol, norm, et path. XXX. 5lh series. X. No. I. p. 138. 



io6 Journal of Comparative Neurology. 

the thorax and some upon the abdomen. If the animal died im- 
mediately there were no results detected in the nervous system 
If, however, the animal lived thirty or forty hours, as some of 
them did, well marked lesions were demonstrated. By Nissl's 
method he found in the motor cells of the myel a perinuclear, 
as well as a peripheral chromatolysis, also vacuoles in the cyto- 
plasm and an eccentric position of the nucleus. By the Golgi 
method he found deformation of the cell body but not to the 
extent of atrophy, and a distinctly moniliform appearance of the 
dendrites. 

An inference derivable from the above experiments, is that 
changes of a structural character do not occur instantaneously 
in the neurocyte, especially if the injury be not directly applied 
to the nervous system. Parascondolo's experiments are of in- 
terest in showing how soon the lesions may be induced through 
the inter-dependence of the tissue systems. A comparison be- 
tween these experiments and the results of electrical excitation 
shows that fatal currents of electricity may indicce changes in 
the dendrites of the nerve cells in a practically instantaneous 
period of time, under unfavorable conditions, as the current is 
prevented from direct action upon the brain by the presence of 
the meninges, bones of the cranium, and scalp. With the weaker 




Fig. 4. 

Fi^. ^. After Cajal, showing the transformation of the bipolar into the 
unipolar spinal ganglion cell. 

currents practically the nervous tissue alone was dealt with, un- 
der the most favorable conditions. Other things being equal, 
we may expect that a current of greater intensity will produce 
given results in less time than a current half as great. Pugnat* 
has demonstrated this in his experiments, finding that it required 



^ Bibliog. Anat. VI, pages 27-32, 



Fish, TJie Nerve Cell as a Unit. 



107 



twice as long to produce certain results with a weak current as 
when one of twice the strength was used. 

We must avoid the danger of regarding the cerebro-spinal 
axis as a rigid and unyielding mass of substance. The action 
of the brain is molar as well as molecular, as evidenced by its 
general movements due to inspiration and expiration. In the 
earlier stages of development there are migratory movements of 
the neuroblasts of an amoeboid nature in order that they may 
reach their destined positions in- the adult structure. The so- 




Fig. 5. 

Fig.^. After Cajal, showing the changes undergone by the cerebellar 
granule cells, reading from left to right. 

called bipolar spinal ganglion cells are the permanent condition 
in such low forms as the ** fishes';" those of higher forms pass 
from this stage in early development to the unipolar condition of 
the adult. 




Fig. 6. 
Fig. 6. After Fish (Central Nervous System of Desmognathus fused), show- 
ing the changes in the form of the neurocytes as they pass from the ental to the 
ectal boundary of the layer of nerve cells. 

Cajal has shown that during their growth the granuk cells 
of the cerebellum pass through even more elaborate changes 
than those of the spinal ganglia. Changes in the form of the 
cells and their appendages are also apparent in the central ner- 



io8 



Journal of Comparative Neurology. 



vous system of certain salamanders, as the neurocytes reach the 
boundary of the cellular layer. 

Here are evidences of the plasticity of the nervous ele- 
ments. Do they lose this property entirely after they have 
reached maturity ? It has been pretty well demonstrated by 
modern histological methods that these elements are morpho- 
logically independent, and the hypothesis of contiguity or over- 
lapping of the parts is now very generally accepted, instead of 
the older view of continuity or direct anastomosis of one cell 




Fig. 7. 

Fig. 7. After Berkley, showing a nerve cell with its processes (human); w, 
neurite ; f, collateral ; </, d, d, dendrites ; g, gemmulas. Illustrating Berkley's 
hypothesis of the way in which the nervous impulse may pass from one nerve 
cell to another by contact of the gemmulce. 

with another. Contact of one element with another is sufficient, 
it is believed, for the transference of a nervous impulse. The 



Fish, TJie Naiie Cell as a Unit. 1 09 

idea has been advanced that even in the adult state the neurocyte 
has not completely lost its power of amoeboid movement, but 
that this p'-operty is still retained at the terminals of its appen- 
dages. This view is not accepted by KoUiker, nor entirely by 
Cajal, who thinks that the neuroglia cells are more mobile than 
the nerve cells. 

The experiments upon the activity and fatigue of the nerve 
cell indicate that a change of volume may occur, a turgescence 
as a result of activity, and a shrinkage when carried to the ex- 
tent of fatigue. Situated in the lymph spaces and constantly 
bathed with the lymph for nutritive purposes, we may expect to 
find certain osmotic processes going on between the contents of 
the cell and its surrounding medium and that these processes 
may be influenced by the activity of the cell and that certain of 
them may occur coincidently with the transmission or origina- 
tion of the impulse in the cell. 

Along the dendrite, and especially well pronounced in the 
cortical cells, are slight lateral spurs known as gemmulae. The 
condition of these, as well as certain irregularities in the form 
of the dendrites, have been noted by Berkley and others as the 
result of pathological causes. Berkley has shown that in cer- 
tain diseased conditions gemmulae have been missing. He be- 
lieves that the cell and its dendrites has a delicate limiting mem- 
brane through which the gemmulae protrude, as naked bits of 
protoplasm, coming into contact with similar uncovered masses 
of protoplasm from the neurite or its collaterals, or in contact 
with the gemmulae of other dendrites and that at these points 
the impulses are transferred. Any destruction or abnormality 
of these gemmulae would of course, interfere more or less seri- 
ously, with the normal conveyance of the impulse. 

The transference of nervous impulses from one element to 
another through contact, due to amceboid movement, would be 
of material importance in the explanation of the phenomena of 
sleep, intellectual processes, and pathological conditions. Before 
pathology has spoken its final word we may hope to know more 
of the remarkable chemical complexity of nervous tissue, com- 
posed, as it is said, of some three hundred or more different ele- 



no Journal of Comparative Neurology. 

ments and compounds. If, in closing, I could have one fact 
shine out beyond any other it would be the idea that, while 
there is a morphological independence of the nervous elements, 
there is a physiological dependence ; that, although there is 
unity there is community ; and that a healthy psychic life is the 
result of the summation of the individual activity of all the ner- 
vous elements. 



VERANUS ALVA MOOKE, B.S,. M.D., 

Professor of Comparative Pathology and Bacteriology, and of 
A feat Inspection. 



ARTICLES. 



The Influence of Animal Experimentation upon Agriculture, 

Proceedings of the Society for the Promotion of Agricultural 
Science, 1896. Pp. 22-34. 

The Nature and Prevention of Infectious Bntero-hepatitis in Turkeys. 

Cultivator and Country Gentleman, March 25, 1897. 

The Hemospast. A new and convenient Instrument for Drawing Blood 
for Microscopic Examination. Illustrated. 

Transactions of the American Microscopical Society, 1897. 
Pp. 186-188. 

Powdered Soap as a Cause of Death among Swill-fed Hogs. 

Bulletin No. 141. Cornell University Agric. Experiment 
Station, 1897. Pp. 409-418. 

Blood Serum in the Prevention and Treatment of Infectious Swine Dis- 
eases with a report of an Experiment with Swine-plague Antitoxin. 
Proceedings of the Society for the Promotion of Agricultural 
Science, 1897. Pp. 26-34. 

Remarks on the Nature and the Differentiation of the Infectious Swine 
Diseases in the United States. 

American Veterinary Review, Vol. xxi, {1898), pp. 813-829. 

Suppurative Cellulitis in the Limbs of Cattle due ' to Streptococcus Infec- 
tion. Illustrated. 

American Veterinary Review, Vol. xxii (1898), pp. 169-178. 

Thermo-regulated Waterbaths for the Bacteriological Laboratory. Illus- 
trated. 

Journal of Applied Microscopy. 1898. P. 108. 

A Report Concerning the Nature of Infectious Swine Diseases in the State 
of New York, with Practical Suggestions for their Prevention 
and Treatment. Illustrated. 

Report of the Commissioner of Agriculture of New York 
State. 1897. Pp. 53. 

Remarks on Anthrax and Rabies with special Reference to Outbreaks 
recently Investigated. Illustrated. Ibid. Pp. 18. 



2 2 The Influence of Animal 



( Fro7H tlie Pi oceedings of the Sevenieentli Meetitig of the Society for the Promotion of 
Agricultural Science, held at Buffalo, N. V., Atigust, 1896.) 

THE INFLUENCE OF ANIMAL EXPERIMENTA- 
TION UPON AGRICULTURE. 

BY VERANUS A. MOORE. 

The benefits to agriculture derived from investigations upon 
animals are to be largely measured by the successes which have 
been attained in the prevention, limitation of the spread, and the 
complete eradication of infectious animal diseases. Plagues in 
the form of these affections have from the earliest times been a 
source of constant dread, and all too frequently, the cause of 
extreme suffering among the people, due to the loss of innumer- 
able animals which afforded them food, clothing and a means of 
transportation. Rinderpest, or the great cattle plague, in Eng- 
land, in 1865, is estimated to have caused a loss of between 
$40,000,000 and $50,000,000 worth of cattle. From 1839 to 1870 



Experimentation upon Agriculture. 23 

the total loss from the ravages in England of two cattle diseases 
is placed at:$400,ooo,ooo. The various infectious and contagious 
diseases baffled all attempts at prevention or eradication. Their 
causes were not known and veterinarians and cattle raisers were 
equally in the dark as to remedies. During the two decades from 
1870 to 1890, Pasteur and other investigators, proceeding by sim- 
ilar methods, demonstrated the specific nature of many of these 
diseases, i.e., they showed that they were due to the presence and 
multiplication in the body of microscopic organisms. These 
discoveries at once destroyed the mischievous theory of their 
spontaneous generation and led the way to the present successful 
methods for their prevention. 

The question naturally arises, How was it possible to demon- 
strate that a certain agent or organism was the cause of a certain 
disease? This could only be done by feeding or inoculating 
healthy animals with the supposed specific organisms and observ- 
ing the results. If the inoculated animals contracted the disease, 
while uninoculated ones, kept under like conditions, remained 
well, and if from the organs of these diseased animals organisms 
were obtained which possessed the same peculiarities of growth, 
and were capable of again producing the disease in healthy 
animals, their specific nature was placed beyond reasonable 
doubt. By this method, and by this alone, has it been possible 
to demonstrate the nature of the infectious diseases, and to bring 
them under the present high degree of subjection. 

The few well recognized animal diseases for which a specific 
agent has not been demonstrated, have had their contagiousness 
or non-infectiousness determined by means of experiments upon 
animals. 

The number of infectious diseases to which our farm animals 
are susceptible, and the losses which they have frequently pro- 
duced, are usually overlooked in times of prosperity. In order to 
show the economic importance of these maladies, and to point out 
a few of the marvellous results which have been obtained from 
animal experimentation, and which have either directly or indi- 
rectly greatly benefitted the agricultural interests of this country, 
I wish to call your attention to the history and present status of 
the more important of these affections. 



24 Thb Influence of Animal 

The Progress which has been Made in the Eradication 
of Infectious Animal Diseases. 

Contagious pleicro-pneicmojiia . — This disease is said to have 
originated in the highlands of central Europe from whence it 
spread to every cattle raising country in the world. It was prob- 
ably introduced into the United States in 1843, in a cow imported 
directly from Europe, and taken from shipboard into a Brooklyn 
cattle shed. At first its spread was not rapid, several years elapsing 
before it became widely disseminated in the Atlantic states. It was 
not, in fact, until about 1880 that it became evident, to those most 
familiar with the disease, that if it were not eradicated, it would, 
through some one of the increasing number of avenues of trans- 
portation, soon reach the great cattle ranges of the West, and ruin 
the cattle industry of this country. 

The general dissemination of this disease was due to the ignor- 
ance of the people concerning its contagiousness. In 1851, 
experiments at Pomerage, France, demonstrated its infectious 
nature, and showed beyond doubt that it would spread from 
diseased to healthy animals. Owing to general skepticism, these 
results were not accepted until they had been many times repeated. 
This was particularly true in the United States. The American 
mind wanted additional evidence and the result was the well 
known experiments made Dr. D. E. Salmon' in 1884 on Barren 
Island. These furnished such undoubted evidence of the 
infectious nature of the disease, that it was not difficult to obtain 
from Congress the necessary legislation and appropriation for 
instituting methods believed to be suitable for its complete eradi- 
cation. As a result, every trace of this disease was removed from 
the United States within the brief period of less than six years 
and at a cost ($1,509,100.72) that was trifling in comparison with 
the losses likely to occur annually as soon as the disease had 
obtained a foothold among the cattle on the western plains. 

Infectious swine diseases. — The important infectious diseases of 
swine known to occur in the United States, are hog cholera and 
swine plague. The first recorded epizootic of hog cholera occurred 
in Ohio in 1833. ^^ gradually spread, until it became a menace 
to this branch of animal industry. In 1889, Dr. Salmon estimated 
from carefully compiled data that the losses in the United States 



First Annual Report Bureau of Animal Industry. 



Experimentation upon AcxRiculture. 25 

from this disease alone, amounted to from $10,000,000 to $25,000- 
000 annually. In other words, a disease supposed to have been 
introduced from Great Britian about 1830, had become a general 
and unquestioned plague by 1870. The nature of the disease 
remained unknown until 1885, when a motile bacillus was found 
to be its specific cause, and the following year the effect of various 
disinfectants on this organism was determined. In 1886 swine 
plague was differentiated from hog cholera, and its specific organ- 
ism was discovered and described. 

Protective inoculations have not, as yet, proven to be satisfac- 
tory with these diseases, and consequently further and different 
experiments should be made. However, the infectiousness of 
these maladies, and the various ways by which their organisms 
can be carried from place to place have been determined. Know- 
ing, therefore, that these diseases are of a specific nature, and 
knowing under what conditions the specific agents can be carried, 
we are in possession of important preventive measures. The 
e6&ciency of this knowledge has been demonstrated in the infected 
localities by many farmers who have followed the prescribed 
methods for keeping the organisms of these diseases away from 
their hogs. 

Tuberculosis. — In 1865 Villemin demonstrated by inoculation of 
healthy animals with tubercles, that tuberculosis was an infectious 
disease, and in 1882 Robert Koch, after repeated experiments 
upon animals, discovered and isolated its specific organism. But 
for these and similar experiments, we should still be totally in the 
dark as to the cause of this disease, and unaware of its com- 
municability from animal to animal. 

The importance of these discoveries is too great for ready com- 
prehension. Tuberculosis, while not characterized as an epidemic 
or epizootic disease, is estimated to be the cause of 14 per cent, of 
all the deaths in the human family, while of the post mortem ex- 
amination of the cattle slaughtered in the abattoirs of ten foreign 
cities and countries, an average of nearly 18 per cent.' have been 
reported to be tuberculous. In the United States it is estimated 
that from 3 to 20 per cent, of the dairy animals have tuberculosis. 

^Statistics collected by Freeman, Medical Record, March, 28, 1896, p. 
433. In detail they are: Berlin 4.57, Munich 2.44, Augsburg 2.24, Mul- 
hausen 3.4, Hanover 60 to 70, France 5, Paris 6, Holland 20, Pomerania 50, 
Mexico 34 per cent. 



26 The Influence of Animal 

Several herds have come to the writer's notice, in which from 
75 to 90 per cent, of the animals were found to be diseased 
on post mortem examination. Not only is there a large amount 
of tuberculosis in our cattle, but it is rapidly spreading. A state 
veterinarian recently told me that the spread of this disease 
among cattle was appalling. Sanitarians have recognized the 
danger of human infection from the consumption of milk from 
tuberculous cows, and the discovery of tuberculosis in pigs fed 
upon such milk is a practical demonstration of the transmission 
of the virus through this medium. The cause of this disease, the 
manner of its dissemination, and the means (tuberculin test) by 
which it can be detected in its early stages, have been discovered, 
the remaining unsolved problem being the one relating to the best 
method for the elimination of the diseased animals. When this 
is solved, and the existing centers of infection removed, the enor- 
mous losses annually sustained by deaths from this disease ought 
practically all to be saved. Judging from the known facts, it is 
highly probable that if attention had not been called to this dis- 
ease in cattle, and a sure method for its detection devised, it 
would have soon become a more universal and destructive plague 
than any which has yet visited the American Continent.' 

Glanders. -This is one of the equine diseases which has been long- 
est known. The ancient Greek and Roman authors describe it, and 
speak of the extensive losses it produced. Many theories existed 
concerning its source, the most prevalent one being its transmis- 
sion in some unknown way through the air. Towards the end of 
the last century, Abildgaard and Viberg demonstrated by numer- 
ous animal experiments that it was transmissible by inoculation. 
In 1837, Rayer showed that it was communicable to man, and in 
1882 its specific organism was described. It is hard for us to 
understand with what difficulty the contagiousness of this disease 
was established, notwithstanding the enormous losses it was an- 
nually causing. Skepticism died out, however, when Loeffler and 
Schultz were able to produce the disease with pure culture of the 
bacillus and were able to show how it could spread, through the 
nasal discharges, from infected to well horses. Another victory like 

'A recent writer who has studied this subject very thoroughly, states that 
' ' This disease has caused more deaths in the human family the world over, 
than the accumulated loss of life from war, famine, plague, cholera, yellow 
fever, and small pox." 



Experimentation upon Agriculture. 27 

the tuberculin discovery was realized in the production of mallein 
from cultures of the glanders bacillus. By the use of this sub- 
stance, the disease can be detected in suspicious cases with the 
same degree of certainty that tuberculosis is found in cattle. It 
thus affords an unquestioned arbitrator in all disputed cases. 
Glanders, like tuberculosis, is transmissible to man, and already 
a very large number of cases have been reported in men who have 
had the care of horses. While the present value of horses is 
much reduced over that of former times, it is no less a benefit to 
the agriculturist that his animals are protected against this dis- 
ease. Since the introduction of the mallein test, and the enforce- 
ment of sanitary regulations compelling the destruction of con- 
demned animals, the amount of glanders has been reduced to a 
great extent. While general statistics are wanting, the import- 
ance of this disease can be understood from the fact that in ten 
years (i 876-1 886) in Prussia alone, it destroyed 20,566 horses. 

Anthrax or malignant pustule. — This is supposed to have been 
the "sixth plague of Egypt " mentioned by Moses. It was 
described by Homer, and Plutarch has given the history of an 
epizootic of anthrax which existed in Rome about the year 740 
B. C Extensive outbreaks of this disease have occurred at 
short intervals since that time. It has become widely dissemi- 
nated, existing on every continent of the globe. The amount of 
loss caused by this disease in former years was appalling. In 
Australia it is said to have destroyed 300,000 sheep annually. 
Formerly the annual loss in a single department of France 
amounted to $2,000,000. In 1884 it destroyed in another section 
4,000 horses, 2,000 oxen and i,coo small cattle. In Novgorod 
in 1867-8, its victims are said to have been 40,000 horses, 8,000 
cows, 6,000 sheep and 500 human beings. 

Passing from the enormous losses and fearful suffering formerly 
caused by this disease to the improved conditions of the present 
time, we find, as in previous instances, that the remedy was dis- 
covered by experiments upon animals. The simple discovery 
and demonstrations by animal inoculations of the bacillus of 
anthrax did much to lessen the amount of the disease. Know- 
ing its specific nature, the dead animals could be disposed of in 
such a way as to prevent the spread of the virus, and greater care 
could be exercised in the interchange of animals and in the 
selection of pasture lands. In 1881 Pasteur demonstrated his 



28 The Influence of Animal 

method of protective inoculation. Since that time the extent of 
its application and the benefit derived from it can be appreciated 
only after a study of the statistics which have been compiled from 
the reports from different countries in which it has been used. 

In 1894 Chamberland reported that a total of 1,988,677 ani- 
mals had been inoculated in France, and the loss from anthrax 
had diminished from 10 per cent, in sheep, and five per cent, in 
cattle to less than one per cent, in sheep and one -fourth per cent. 
in cattle, a saving of over $2,000,000. 

In Spain this disease prevailed among the sheep, cattle, and 
horses, and the former mortalit}^ of livestock has been estimated 
as high as 20 per cent. Since the use of Pasteur's vaccine, the 
mortality is estimated at less than two per cent. In Austro- 
Hungary the former losses were very heavy, ranging from 10 to 
60 per cent, of the cattle and sheep. They are now reported to 
be on an average of less than one per cent. Similar benefits 
have been realized in other parts of Europe, and laboratories for 
the preparation of the vaccine have been established in several of 
its countries. Like smallpox in the human subject, anthrax has 
lost much of its terror for the farmers of Europe. 

In the United States, losses from this disease have not been so 
extensive, but the records show annually outbreaks of serious 
proportions. Our knowledge of the specific cause, however, has 
enabled the authorities to enforce regulations to prevent its spread. 
Without this knowledge it would undoubtedly soon be as preva- 
lent and destructive to our farm animals as tuberculosis. 

Rabies or hydrophobia. — Among the diseases of man, none are 
more dreaded and in animals few are more pitiful than rabies. 
There is no longer any disagreement among pathologists as to the 
existence of this disease, or as to its dangerous nature, it being 
readily communicated from rabid to healthy animals. In the 
maladies heretofore cited, with the exception of contagious pleuro- 
pneumonia, the specific organism has been found, isolated, and 
cultivated on artificial media. In rabies, the search for the 
specific agent has been less successful, but practically quite as 
fruitful. The facts have been established by experiments, that 
when rabbits are inoculated with a bit of the spinal cord or brain 
of a rabid dog or other animal, they will die after a certain length 
of time (usually from 15 to 30 days) with definite and character- 
istic symptoms, and that when rabbits are inoculated by the same 



Experimentation upon Agriculture. 29 

method with the spinal cord or brain of healthy dogs, they will 
remain well. In 1884, Pasteur made his brilliant demonstration 
of his method of conferring immunity against rabies or hydro- 
phobia before a commission of scientific men appointed to make 
an investigation into its merits. Concerning his first inoculation 
in man, Pasteur wrote: "Making use of this method, I had 
already made 50 dogs of various racesandagesimmune to rabies, 
and had not met with a single failure, when, on the sixth day of 
July, quite unexpectedly three persons, residents of Alsace, pre- 
sented themselves at my laboratory. One of these, a boy of nine 
years, who had been bitten in fourteen different places by a rabid 
dog, was saved." At Pasteur's Institute in Paris, 9,433 persons 
were treated during the years 1886 to 1890 inclusive. The total 
mortality among those treated was 0.61 of one per cent. In 1890, 
416 persons bitten by dogs proved to be rabid, and among these 
there was not a single death. In 1891, the number of persons 
treated was 1,539, with a mortality of 0.25 of one per cent., and 
in 1893, 1,790 inoculations were made with a mortality of 0.22 of 
one per cent. 

While the extensive investigations of Pasteur have resulted in 
giving us a specific for this disease in man, the farm animals are 
less fortunate on account of the attending expense and the usual 
ignorance on the part of the owners of their exposure. The 
writer had the honor of positively diagnosing rabies in a herd of 
cattle in the state of Iowa in 1892, in which eleven valuable ani- 
mals died. The disease was looked upon as a "mysterious 
plague' ' and would still have been regarded as such if it had not 
been for the definite methods of diagnosis by means of animal 
inoculation. Several similar outbreaks have been reported. In 
the Atlantic states the losses of cattle and horses from rabies are 
quite considerable. In fact, there are many reasons for believing 
that cases of this disease are becoming more numerous. In the 
city of Washington, during a period of two years (Dec. 1892 to 
Dec. 1894) inoculations made in the Bureau of Animal Industry 
demonstrated the existence of 15 cases of rabies (one in a negro, 
one in a horse and thirteen in dogs). During the past year, the 
same methods have shown the existence of eight cases in the 
same city. One in an elderly lady who was bitten by her pet dog, 
two in foxes, and five in dogs. Although Pasteur's treatment 
has reduced the mortality in people bitten by mad dogs from an 



30 The Influence of Animal 

average of 47 per cent, in 1875 to less than one percent, in those 
who take it', the remedy is at present beyond the reach of many, 
and certainly our cattle and horses are excluded. 

As a preventive measure there should be an extermination of 
thousands of useless dogs, especially those running about our 
cities and towns. The practical application of this great discov- 
ery by Pasteur, lies in determining by rabbit inoculations, whether 
the suspected dog was actually rabid and, if so, in checking the 
further spread of the disease by placing all animals that have 
been bitten in close confinement, and providing the Pasteur 
treatment for all of the human victims. 

Texas or Southern cattle fever. — The investigations begun in 
1889 by the Bureau of Animal Industry have shown that this is a 
disease of the blood due to the presence of a microparasite. Its 
history is most interesting. If cattle from the permanently 
infected districts in the South are brought to the North during 
the summer, the northern cattle with which they are yarded or 
pastured will contract the disease and usually die, while the 
southern- animals will remain well. The same fate meets northern 
cattle shipped into the infected districts. 

It has been demonstrated by experiments upon animals, that 
the cattle tick {^Boophilus bovis) carries the disease, and that in 
the absence of this tick southern cattle can be shipped North at 
any time of year with perfect safety to northern stock, and that if 
the ticks are removed from the pastures, northern cattle can live 
in the South. As the carrier of this disease is known, it can be 
destroyed. Although very promising experiments are now in 
progress, pointing to a method of immunizing northern cattle 
against this disease, yet they are of little importance compared 
with the elimination of the disease. It is partly because of this 
malady, that an embargo has been put on our cattle b}^ various 
European countries. With proper state regulations in the infected 
districts, supplemented by the intelligent efi'orts of the cattle 
raisers, these parasites might be eliminated, and that too, within 
a comparatively few years and at a slight expense. This being 
accomplished, the cattle of the United States would be free from 
infectious diseases objectionable to the powers of the old world. 

Other diseases. — There are still other diseases, frequently of 
great local interest, which have been investigated by means of 

* Ziemssen, 1875. 



Experimentation upon Agriculture. 31 

animal experimentation, and robbed of much of their former 
terror. Among these should be placed the animal parasitic 
diseases, such as trichinae in pork, the fluke diseases of cattle, 
and the fluke and tape worm diseases of sheep. A nodular 
disease of the intestines of sheep due to a small round worm, and 
one in fowls due to a tape worm were once supposed to be tuber- 
culosis. A disease in cattle known as the corn-stalk disease, and 
which was thought, especially in Europe, to be contagious, and 
therefore requiring rigid quarantine, has been shown to be due to 
local causes, and in no way transmissible from one animal to 
another. Much light has been shed upon the infectious diseases 
of poultry, such as "black-head " in turkeys and diphtheria in 
chickens. Very recently a new disease of fowls has been described, 
a filth disease which is frequently called fowl cholera, and which 
can be prevented by the adoption of a regime of cleanliness, 
wholesome food and ventilation. Attention should also be called 
to the great importance of animal investigations now in progress 
on various serums, toxines, and antitoxines, for the purpose of 
discovering efficient remedies for the various infectious diseases 
of animals. 

Zootechny. — In zootechny, or experimentation for improving 
breeds of domesticated animals, the investigations have been of 
unquestioned importance to the agriculturist. Whatever the evils 
from in-and-in or close breeding, no one doubts for a moment 
that the modern breeds of farm animals are a great improvement 
over the original and native stock. While the natural resistance 
of these animals against infectious diseases may have been appre- 
ciably lessened, the knowledge we possess of how to keep these 
diseases away from our flocks, should encourage future experi- 
ments for the purpose of raising better and swifter horses ; cows 
to give more and richer milk ; sheep to yield finer wool and more 
of it ; and swine to grow more pork per bushel of corn. 

Further Investigations Necessary. 

A study of the efforts which have been made for the suppres- 
sion of infectious diseases of animals in this country, shows that, 
while wonderful advances have been made, the desired results in 
many instances have not been fully attained. Ignorant of what 
has been done, and equally ignorant of what there remains to do, 
there are those who question the necessity for further investiga- 



32 The Influence of Animal 

tions. Great as have been the achievements in the past, it must 
be evident to every unprejudiced mind that still greater achieve- 
ments, greater whether measured by relief of sufifering or by finan- 
cial gain, are within reach in the near future. The benefits to 
agriculture and mankind in general, which have accrued from the 
investigations of the past, are no nearer their maximum limits of 
success, than was the practical application of steam when Watts 
made his first discovery. Knowledge of the diseases of animals 
was practically at a standstill, until the development, by means 
of repeated experiments upon animals, of the germ theory of dis- 
ease. The only distinctive advances have been along these lines. 
In spite of all that has been done, practical preventive medicine 
has barely passed its infancy, and the important investigations 
into the dietary diseases have just begun. 

So much for future research. A word now in regard to the 
restrictions of those diseases concerning the causation of which we 
are no longer in doubt. The application of our present knowl- 
edge of detecting diseases and preventive medicine necessitates ad- 
ditional experimentation. How can tuberculosis be eradicated 
from our dairy herds except by animal experimentation, in test- 
ing with tuberculin ? How can glanders be eradicated except by 
the use of mallein for diagnosis ? How can we determine in time 
for treatment, whether the dog which bites a child or farm ani- 
mal is rabid except by inoculating a rabbit ? Disregarding the 
humanitarian aspect of the case and judging simply from a com- 
mercial standpoint, how can we afford to relinquish the inves- 
tigations which have done so much to assist this country in build- 
ing up an annual export trade of $176,191,521' in animals and 
animal products with a capital invested in live stock exclusive of 
poultry of $1,727,926,084?'' 

Furthermore, experiments which have demonstrated important 
facts to you and to me are not always accepted by others, unless 
they can be and are verified by repetition. There is in human 
nature an inherent demand for visible proof. Let me illustrate. 
It has been demonstrated that the cattle tick {Boophihcs bovis) 
causes Texas fever, yet the southern farmer who has always seen 
ticks upon his cattle does not believe these experiments are true, 
or at least bear the interpretation put upon them. Within the last 



* Actual amount of exports of this nature in 1895. 

2 Official estimates of the U. S. Department of Agriculture, Jan. i, 1896. 



Experimentation upon Agriculture. 33 

six weeks men from the south have requested that these experiments 
be repeated on their plantations with the assurance thatifsuccessfu 
they will believe in the theory and set about eliminating the ticks. 
In order not to retard progress, it is often necessary that these 
doubting Thomas's should be convinced, and the only way to ac- 
complish it is by repeating what has already been done. In other 
words, a certain amount of experimentation must be carried on as 
a means of education. 

It is evident to all those who are familiar with the methods 
necessary for the investigation of contagious and infectious ani- 
mal diseases, that inoculation or exposure experiments are liable 
to be necessary suddenly at any place and at any time. This 
renders it exceedingly important that there should be unrestricted 
liberty in animal experimentation in every state in the Union 
where farm animals are kept. Such is the existing condition, 
and to this freedom the American people are very largely indebted 
for the successes which have been achieved in the suppression of 
their animal plagues. Owing to an anti- vivisection crusade 
which finally found expression in a Parliamentary enactment, 
animal experimentation has been so crippled in England in recent 
years that the country which should have done most, by virtue 
of her wide geographical possessions and vast live stock interests, 
for the improvement of methods of preventing and controlling in- 
fectious diseases, has done practically nothing. I^et me quote 
from one of England's foremost veterinarians^ in a plea for animal 
experimentation: "No country in Europe has, possibly, sus- 
tained greater loss during the last thirty-five years than our own ; 
yet no country, perhaps, should have suffered less. With the 
finest breed of horses, and the most magnificent herds and flocks 
in the world, and a teeming population, whose health and wealth 
are largely centered in these, we have entirely neglected to protect 
them from the ravages of diseases of home and foreign origin, by 
forgetting to foster and encourage that science which alone can 
accomplish this. That neglect has cost Britain and her colonies 
untold millions." 

A similar ill-considered and fanatic crusade is now in progress 
in this country. At the last session of the present Congress, a 
bill was favorably reported by the Senate Committee on the Dis- 

» George Fleming. The Contagious Diseases of Animals ; their Influence 
on the Wealth and Health of the Nation, and How they are to be combated. 



34 The Influence of Animal Experimentation. 

trict of Columbia to the U. S, Senate, entitled " A bill for the further 
preveyition of cruelty to animals in the District of Columbia. " Osten- 
sibly this bill has for its purpose the prevention of vivisection, 
which does not exist, in the public schools of the District, but it 
has been so cunningly worded that if passed, it practically pro- 
hibits further investigations into the cause and treatment of ani- 
mal diseases in the Government laboratories. Not only this, but 
it virtually closes the highly important laboratory of the Surgeon 
General of the U. S. Army, and those maintained by the Marine 
Hospital Service. It is the admitted intention of the promoters 
of this bill, to use the prestige gained in Congress to assist in ob- 
taining similar prohibitory State legislation. This movement 
represents an effort, on the part of certain kind hearted and well 
meaning people to abolish all animal experimentation, but it is 
not really humane. Its success would entail a vast amount of 
needless suffering upon animals exposed to the various infectious 
diseases, and seriously threaten the prosperity of the animal indus- 
try of the whole country. To spare the very few experimental 
animals necessary in procuring life-saving results, they would 
sacrifice annually tens of thousands of other more valuable ani- 
mals to all sorts of infectious diseases. The time has come, when 
the agricultural societies of this country should unite with other 
scientific and medical associations in protesting against the pas- 
sage of this inhumane and retrogressive bill. The progress of 
such investigations as I have here but fragmentarily outlined, and 
which have the broadest economic and humanitarian value, 
should not be retarded by misguided sentimentalism. 
New York State Veterinary College, 
Cornell University, Ithaca, N. Y, 



The Nature and Prevention of 



Infectious Entero= Hepatitis in Turkeys. 



BY 



VERANUS A. MOORE, 

PROFESSOR OF COMPARATIVE PATHOLOGY AND BACTERIOLOGY, 

NEW YORK STATE VETERINARY COLLEGE, 

CORNELL UNIVERSITY, ITHACA, N. Y. 



Rej/iiiitedfrom "TJif Cultivator and Country Gentleman,^ 
Marc], m. 1897. 



The Nature and Prevention of Infectious Enteo=Hepatitis 

in Turkeys. 



The fanners of New-England lose annually many turkeys from a disease desig- 
nated by them as "black-head." This riame seems to have been suggested by the 
fact that the lieads of the turkeys become very dark colored during the last stages 
of the disease. Just when or where this affection first appeai-ed is not known, but 
at present it is w^idely disseminated in New-England and it has appeared in a few- 
places in several of the more northern of the western States. Last fall it was recog- 
nized in the eastern part of New York. While its gradual migration from New- 
England westward has been expected, the knowledge recently acquired concerning 
its nature and cause should enable turkey raisers to adopt more active measures to 
prevent its future appearance and further dissemination. 

The nature of this disease remained a mystery until hS^)4. During the summer 
of that year, Di-. Theobald Smith, then of the Bureau of Animal Industry, U. S. De- 
partment of Agriculture, made it the subject of special investigation at Kingston, 
K. I. lie found that it was caused by a mici'oscopic organism [AukwIxi mdctigridifi) 
belonging to the lowest forms of animal life. The lesions were found to consist of 
inflammatory processes in the c.eca (prongs) and in the liver. The cjeca are first 
affected, after which the liver, through the portal system of blood vessels, becomes 
invaded with the micro-parasites. The name assigned to this disease was. in ac- 
cordance with its pathology, infectious entero-hepatitis. 

This disease is of much greater economic importance than is generally supposed. 
The extent of the losses it occasions can be appreciated from the following state- 
ment taken from an article on this subject in the report of the K. I. Agricultural 
Experiment Station for lSt)4 : "The eradication of this disease would be worth hun- 
dreds of thousands of dollars to the eastern farmer alone." As this disease of tur- 
keys has not until recently been known to be of an infections nature, its spread has 
been heretofore unrestricted. In fact its dissemination has been unconsciously en- 
couraged by the shipment of turkeys from the infected localities to non-infected 
sections of the country. As this disease does not ordinarily spread with such ra- 
pidity as to cause it to be considered an epizootic disease recpiiring prompt attention. 
it has been able to become well established in the newlv infected localities. 



Fortunately for its future restriction, and it is hoped, elimination, this disease 
is easily diagnosed and with a little attention can be diflerentiated from other intes- 
tinal disorder;^ of turkeys. Although the symptoms are not very characteristic, 
some of them are quite distinctive. The necks ot the turke3'S usually have a shrunk- 
en appearance ; the skin on the head turns to a dark color ; the turkeys become less 
active and do not keep up with the healthy ones in their daily wanderings ; they 
soon become indifferent to food and finally die. If the viscera are examined, the 
walls of one or both ca'ca will be found to be thickened and perhaps ulcerated. The 
liver will be enlarged and sprinkled with areas of a greenish, yellowish, or brown- 
ish color. These consist of masses of dead tissue and their colors are often exceed- 
ingly brilliant. These appearances of the c<eca and liver are diagnostic for this dis- 
ease, as they are not known to occur, or to be even approximated, among the lesions 
of any other disease of poultry. Further, the specific organism can be discovered if 
a proper microscopic examination of the affected organs is made. 

The channels through which turkeys become infected with the micro-parasite 
have not been fully determined. It was suggested by Dr. Smith (Bulletin No. 8, 
Bureau of Animal Industry, U. S. Department of Agriculture, ) that the micro-organ- 
ism which causes this disease could be transmitted directly from turkey to turkey 
through the feces or by feeding upon the organs of diseased turkeys. More recent- 
ly a few experiments made by the Bureau of Aninial Industry (Circular Xo. o, 1<S9()), 
shows that this is true. In some of these experiments the feces of diseased turkeys 
were fed to healthy ones, and in other cases the diseased Cceca and livers were cut 
up in small pieces mixed with the feed and given to healthy turkeys, with the re- 
sult that nearly all those fed, either feces or viscera, became infected and died with 
the disease. These experiments demonstrate the fact that this malady can be trans- 
mitted directly from affected to healthv turkeys without the intervention of an in- 
termediate host. They do not prove, however, that this is the only way by which 
it is contracted or transmitted. The theory of the direct transmission is the only 
hypothesis, however, by which its presence, in many localities, can be readily ex- 
plained. 

Methods of treating the affected turkeys are not promising. Successful medici- 
nal remedies have not been found, and it is highly probable that the only satisfactory 
method of dealing with this disease is to prevent it. To this end much valuable 
knowledge has been acquired. Thus it has been shown to be infectious ; its specific 
organism has been found and described ; and its communicability from diseased to 
healthy turkeys has been established. The essential preventive measure necessary 
to be taken by all turkey raisers is to keep, so far as they can with this knowledge, 
the organism of this disease away from their flock. In purchasing turkeys for breed- 
ing or other purposes, care should be taken that they do not come from flocks affect- 
ed with this disease. If its dissemination through the introduction of turkeys which 
may be suffering with a chronic form of the affection, or perhaps have been recently 
infected is checked, it is presumable that this malady will not extend beyond its 
present boundaries. 



It is suggested that farmers; and poultry raisers who have recently had this dis- 
ease in their flocks should dispose of their old turkeys and start by hatehing turkey 
eggs under hens, or with turkeys obtained from non-infected districts, preferably 
from the South, as this disease is not known to exist there. As a precautionary 
measure, the turkey roosts, especially the accumulated droppings, should be disin- 
fected early in the spring before the young tuikeys are hatched or old ones intro- 
duced. The liberal use of slaked lime in the yards most frequently occupied by the 
diseased turkeys is recommended. 

The surest and cheapest method of dealing with infectious animal diseases is to 
prevent them altogether. This can only be done by closing absolutely the channels 
through which the organisms producing them gain entrance to the body of the 
healthy individuals. While there may be an intermediate host for the micro-organ- 
ism of this turkey disease, the present indications are that there is not, and the best 
that can be done is to act in accordance with the knowledge that we possess. If the 
losses annually sustained from this disease are to be reduced and its further geo- 
graphical distribution to be checked, it is imperative that every one interested 
should adopt such precautionary measures for its prevention and spread, as actual 
experiments have demonstrated to be necessary. 



[Reprinted from the Transactions of the American Microscopical Society, iSqy.) 



THE HEMOSPAST. 

A NEW AND CONVENIENT INSTRUMENT FOR DRAWING 
BLOOD FOR MICROSCOPIC EXAMINATION. 



VERANUS A. MOORE, M. D., Ithaca, N. Y. 



In a recent number of the Medical Record I called atten- 
tion to this instrument as a convenient apparatus for physi- 
cians in drawing small quantities of blood for diagnostic pur- 
poses. During the past few weeks, however, I have made 
some important changes in its construction, and which are 
incorporated in the present description. The constantly 
increasing attention which is being given to the blood, and 
the importance of the results of its examination in making 
diagnoses, renders improvement in the instruments for obtain- 
ing even the little blood needed for this purpose worthy of 
attention. Although a sharp pointed bistoury, a surgical or 
even sewing needle can be used by the vigorous laboratory 
student on himself or equally robust companion with little or 
no discomfort, this little operation has a much more serious 
aspect to the anemic and usually nervous patient. With 
these the mere sight of a sharp instrument, although it be 
but a surgical needle, causes much apprehension. It fre- 
quently happens that in the very anemic it is necessary to 
make several "stabs" before a sufficient flow of blood is 
secured, and often through a desire to avoid a repetition of 
the hurt I have seen unnecessarily deep incisions made. 

In studying the blood of the smaller or experimental ani- 
mals in the laboratory the task of getting the blood is less 
difficult, but even here the incision which is made with a 



2 THE IIEMOSPAST. 

scalpel, bistoury, or scissors is often unnecessarily long or 
deep. For the larger animals the spring fleam is very satis- 
factory, but it is not applicable for the smaller species or for 
the human subject. 

The introduction of the hematocrit for the determination 
of the number of red blood corpuscles necessitates a slightly 
larger quantity of blood for each examination than was 
required for the counting apparatus and consequently aggra- 
vates the difficulties, by the present methods, of procuring 
the required amount. The desire for an instrument with 
which the incision could be made instantly, and the depth of 
the cut accurately regulated, led me to make some experi- 
ments in the construction of an apparatus possessed of these 
qualities. The outcome has been a spring needle lancet which 
works so admirably, and which has so completely removed 
the difficulties mentioned that it seems worthy of description. 




The hemospast' consists of a metal tube (I have used 
brass) about five centimeters long and one centimeter in diam- 
eter. The upper end is closed with a milled-edged screw-cap 
and the lower end covered with a perforated screw-cap, upon 
which is a second perforated screw-cap about one centimeter 
long. This forms a regulator for graduating the length of the 
projection of the cutting needle. A narrow longitudinal slot, 
two centimeters long, is cut in one side of the tube, begin- 
ning one-half centimeter from the lower end. This has a 
shallow notch cut into the tubing at the top and a deep pock- 
eted one a little below the middle. In the upper part of the 
tube is a piece of coiled wire spring two and a half centime- 
ters long and of sufficient strength to give the necessary 
force to a cylindrical plunger carrying the needle, which is 



I Hemospast is the noun from the Greek combination of which the adjective form 
hemospastic (drawing or attracting blood) is already in use. 



THE HEMOSPAST. 3 

placed next to it in the lower part of the tube. The plunger 
rests against the cap. The incision is made with a triangu- 
lar-pointed needle inserted and fastened into the lower end 
of the plunger. A piece of perforated rubber covers the 
lower end of the plunger and prevents the harsh clicking 
sound which otherwise would follow the springing of the 
needle. From the side of the plunger projects a trigger 
which moves in the slot and with which the plunger is pushed 
up. When the spring is thus set the trigger is easily caught 
by a slight twisting movement into the notch at the upper 
end of the slot. When not in use, the trigger rests in the 
pocketed notch. By means of the regulator the length of 
the projecting part of the needle can be easily adjusted. The 
needle is entirely hidden from sight, so that the instrument, 
if exposed to view, does not suggest an implement of torture. 

In use it is convenient and easily handled. After the 
finger, or other part, is cleansed and the incision is to be 
made the spring is set and the instrument is pressed gently 
to the part, the trigger pushed slightly and the incision of 
exactly the depth desired is instantly made. As soon as 
sprung the hemospast can be dropped and the collection of 
blood begun. 

This instrument is equally efficient and much more conve- 
nient in procuring small quantities of blood from experimen- 
tal animals than those which I have heretofore observed in the 
hands of others or employed myself. As it is made entirely 
of metal it can be sterilised as other surgical instruments. If 
desired, it can be made larger and stronger with needles of 
various sizes and, if preferred, with a cutting edge of a milli- 
meter or more in length. It is available, therefore, for work- 
ers in laboratories where normal human blood or that of 
healthy or diseased animals is being studied, as well as for 
the practising physician. Although simple in its design, 
there were a few mechanical difficulties encountered, for the 
overcoming of which I am indebted to Mr. W. C. Barnard 
for timely suggestions. 



POWDERED SOAP 



AS A CAUSE OF DEATH AMONG 



SWILL-FED HOGS 



By Veranus A. Moore. 



Reprinted from Bui^letin 141 



CORNELL UNIVERSITY 

AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION, 

1897. 



POWDERED SOAP AS A CAUSE OF DEATH 
AMONG SWILL-FED HOGS. 



It is a common experience of those who are engaged in the 
investigation of animal diseases to occasional!}' find ontbreaks of 
a pecnliar nature among swill- fed hogs. By these are meant 
herds of greater or less size, usually kept near or within the out- 
skirts of our villages or small cities, and which are fed upon the 
kitchen refuse, often including the dish water, collected from 
hotels, boarding houses and private dwellings. The cause of 
death in these outbreaks is, in this state, at least, usually attribu- 
ted to hog cholera. The basis for this popular diagnosis seems 
to be in the similarit}^ of certain of the s3'mptoms manifested by 
these animals to those of hog cholera, such, for example, as 
diarrhoea and partial paral3^sis and the fact that a majority of 
those attacked die. The course of the disease is irregular, deaths 
occurring in from a few hours to several days after the symptoms 
appear. 

During the past year I have had occasion to make investiga- 
tions into the nature of several of these outbreaks of a supposedly 
infectious disease. In a few of these epizootics hog cholera or 
swine plague was easily demonstrated. In certain others, how- 
ever, these or other infectious diseases could not be found. The 
animals were usually fed the kitchen slops collected from hotels 
and boarding houses. The tissue changes in the animals examined 
were atypical of any known disease and notwithstanding the 
bacteriological examinations which were made, together with 
animal inoculations with pieces of the diseased organs, the 
cause of death remained undetermined. The post mortem exam- 
inations showed in nearly all of these animals enlarged and dark 
colored lymphatic glands, especially those of the mesentery. 
The blood vessels of the mesentery were very much distended 
with blood. The liver and kidneys were usually not affected but 
occasionally these organs were involved. Where there had been 



4 TO BULLHTIN 141. 

marked nervous symptoms the brain was much congested. Occa- 
sionally the lungs contained areas of collapse. The intestines 
were, as a rule, pale and the mucous membrane seemed to be ab- 
normally shiny. 

The negative outcome of these investigations suggested that 
possibly our methods had been faulty or that some unknown con- 
ditions existed which had obscured the cause of death, and that 
after all the popular diagnosis of an infectious disease was right. 
Against this theory was the fact that the disease did not spread 
from the affected herds toothers, although, as a rule, precautions 
were not taken to prevent its dissemination and in some instances 
the neighboring herds were most favorably situated for contract- 
ing the disease if it had been contagious. In certain of the out- 
breaks the exceedingly filthy condition in which the pens and 
yards were kept suggested, in the absence of a knowledge of 
definite, specific agents, that the animals had died as a result of 
their unsanitary surroundings and unwholesome food, a hypo- 
thesis which in some instances is still entertained as being highly 
probable. However, we were still confronted with the problem 
that in many outbreaks neither a specific infectious disease could 
be found nor the exciting cause of death pointed out. 

Although it was apparent that the cause of the deaths was to 
be found in the food, the feeders of this kind of swill failed to 
see why they should discontinue its use. Naturally they 
felt that if we could not find or demonstrate the presence of the 
destructive agent in the swill the cause of death must be some- 
thing else, probably hog cholera, for thousands of hogs are an- 
nually raised upon this kind of food. Further, the plea that 
such garbage was not a suitable or even wholesome food for their 
animals availed nothing for the reply was, that usually their pigs 
thrived upon it. 

Early in the summer, in conversation on this subject with Mr. 
W. F. Davey, an enterprising farmer living near Brew^erton, N. Y. , 
he related the circumstances concerning an outbreak of this kind 
in which he had traced the cause of the trouble to the soap used 
in washing the dishes. The swill, including the dish water, was 
collected from three small hotels and fed to a herd of swine. In 
a short time the animals began to sicken and manv of them died. 



Death Among Svvill-Fkd Hogs. 411 

Upon inquiry it was found that in the hotels large (juantities of 
powdered soap were used in washing the dishes. This was 
stopped and no more animals died. Later in the season Dr. J. 
A. McCrank, of Plattsl)urg. told me of an outbreak of an appar- 
ently infectious disease among swine which had come under his 
observation and in which he could not make a positive diagnosis. 
In the investigation of its cause he found that the hogs were 
being fed the swill, including the dish water, from a hotel. Upon 
inquiry he found that powdered soap was being used in large 
quantities. The swill from this place was stopped and the disease 
disappeared. 

In following up the line of inquiry which these experiences 
suggested, it was found that there is among the more enterpris- 
ing farmers, a quite general belief that these soaps, when given 
in considerable quantities, are injurious and even fatal to hogs. 
The consensus of opinion on this subject together with the more 
definite observations of Mr. Dave}' and Dr. McCrank appeared 
to be so conclusive that it seemed important to determine by 
careful experiment to what extent, if at all, powdered soaps can 
be considered as the cause of death in this class of outbreaks. 
To this end the experiment about to be described was carried out. 
It shows that when certain of the powdered soaps sold in the 
market are present in the food in relatively large quantities a 
considerable percentage of the animals will sicken and many of 
them will die. When, however, the soaps are added to the food 
in small quantities (a dessert spoonful in the food for three pigs, 
twice daily) no bad effects seem to follow. The cause of death 
when it does occur is probably- due, as shown by the chemical 
analyses, to the free alkali, sodium carbonate or washing soda, 
which they contain. 

EXPERIMENT IN FEEDING POWDERED SOAPS TO 

PIGS. 

In the experiment three of the commonly used powdered soaps 
were selected. They are here designated as soaps A, B and C. 
Nine pigs weighing about 20 pounds each were taken. They 
were given their regular food, grain mixed in water and some 
separator milk. To this was added a definite quantity of the 



412 Btllktin 141. 

soaps which were dissolved and thoronohly mixed in the food 
twice dail\-. 

vSoAP A. 
July 10. Pigs Nos. I, 2 and 3 were placed in pen No. i. They 

were given, night and morning, regular rations as 

previously described to which were added 2 ounces of 

soap A. 
July 14. Pigswell. Quantity of soap given increased to 40unces. 
July iS. Pig No. I has profuse diarrhoea, others w^ell. 
July 20. Pig No. I has diarrhoea, at times it runs about the 

pen in apparently a dazed condition. 
July 24. Pigs Nos. 1 and 2 have bad diarrhoea. Quantity of 

soap given reduced to i ounce. 
Aug. I. Pigs appear to be well. 
Aug. 7. Quantity of soap increased to 5 ounces. 
Aug. 8. Pigs sick, all have diarrhoea, do not eat. Have some 

difficulty in walking. 
Aug. 9. Pigs appear to be no better. 

Aug. II. Pigs still sick. Have eaten very little. Soap stopped. 
Aug. 12. Pigs slight!}' better. 

Aug. 15. The condition of the pigs is much improved. 
Aug. 18 Animals apparently well. 

The feeding of this soap was repeated on these animals some 
weeks later with a similar result. 

Soap B. 

July 10. Pigs Nos. 4, 5 and 6 were placed in pen No. 2. They 
w^ere fed the regular rations to which w^ere added, 
morning and evening, 2 ounces of .soap B. 

July 14. Pig No. 4 has a bad diarrhoea. Others well. Quantity 
of soap given increased to 4 ounces. 

Jul}' 15. All three have a diarrhoea. 

July 19. Pig No. 4 found dead. No. 5 very sick, unable to 
stand, refuses food. 

July 20. Pig No. 5 can not stand, limbs constantly jerking. 
There seems to be paralysis. It dies late in the after- 
noon. Pig No. 6 has suffered from diarrhoea but 
otherwise seems to be well although it eats very 
little. Quantity of soap reduced to >^ ounce. 



Dkath Among Swill-Fkd Hogs. 413 

July 22. Pio^ No. 6 ])etter. 

Aug. I. Pig No. 6 much improved. Soap discontinued. 

So.\p C. 

July 10. Pigs Nos. 7, 8 and 9 were placed in pen No. 3. They 
were fed the same as the others. Night and morning 
2 ounces of soap C were mixed with their food. 

July 13. All the pigs have diarrhoea, eat very little. 

July 14. Quantity of soap reduced to i ounce. 

July 16. Pigs very sick. Hat very little, head jerks constantly, 
limbs tremble, temperature 103.5, 104, 103.8° F. 

July iS. Pig No. 7 dies suddenly to-day. Others still sick. 
No. 8 has much difficult}' in standing, Lies with feet 
extended. Legs and head are constantly jerking. 
No. 9 has diarrhoea, eats little but otherwise appears 
to be well. 

July 19. Pig No. 8 found dead this morning. No. 9 seems to 
be better. 

Jul}' 20. Pig No. 9 eats heartil^^ Appears to be quite well. 
Three other pigs, Nos 10, 11 and 12 from the same lot were 

placed in pen No. 3 with pig No. 9. They were given ^ ounce 

of soap C thoroughly mixed with their food twice daily. 

July 25. Pigs apparently well. 

Aug. I. Pigs apparently well. 

Aug. 17. Pigs apparently well. The quantity of soap increased 
to 4 ounces at each feeding. 

Aug. 18. Pig No. 10 sick. 

Aug. 20. Pigs all sick, refuse food. They ate sparingly of some 
corn given them. 

Aug. 21. No appreciable change. 

Aug. 23. Pig No. 10 very sick. The muscles of the head and 
legs constantly jerking. Eats very little of the regu- 
lar food but partakes sparingly of corn. 

Aug. 25. No change. 

Aug. 27. Pigs very sick, have refused food containing soap for 

two days. Eat sparingly of corn. Soap discontinued. 

The pigs which recovered from the immediate effect of the soap 

did not become thrifty for some weeks. It was late in September 

before they began to show signs of growth. 



414 Bulletin 141. 

Post Mortem Examination. 

Pig No. 4. The skin over the ventral part of the bod}' and 
between the thighs of a pinkish color. Kidneys 
very pale. Spleen normal. The blood vessels of 
the mesentery much congested. The mesenteric 
glands enlarged and oedematous. Many of them 
are congested. Areas of the mucous meml^rane of 
the intestines especially the ileum, were of a dark 
reddish color. The lungs and heart were not 
changed. The brain was deeply congested. 
Pig No. 5. This pig showed lesions ver}^ similar to those 
exhibited by No. 4. The essential difference was 
an increase in the intestinal congestion. 
Pig. No. 7. The skin between the thighs and about the nose 
was of a bright pinkish color. The liver was small, 
exceedingly firm and friable. The mesenteric blood 
vessels were injected and the mesenteric glands were 
enlarged and oedematous and many of them deeply 
reddened. A few were hemorrhagic. Spleen nor- 
mal. The cortex of the kidneys ver\' pale but the 
papillae were abnormall}' dark. The mucous mem- 
brane of the intestines was congested in a few 
irregular areas. The mucosa of the stomach covered 
with a thick la3^er of mucus. The heart and 
lungs were normal in appearance. The brain was 
very much congested. 
Pig No. 8. The tissue changes in this animal w^ere similar to 
those found in pig No. 7 with the exception that 
the kidneys were much congested. 
A careful bacteriological examination was made of the liver, 
spleen, kidney's and blood of each animal that died. In nearly 
every instance (all but two) the tubes of culture media (agar and 
bouillon) inoculated remained clear. The two exceptions con- 
tained saprophytic bacteria and were probably contaminations 
from the air. This examination shows that the alkali had not 
favored the migration of the bacteria from the intestine to the 
various organs of the body. 



Death Among Swill- Fed Hogs. 415 

In order to check the results, several pigs from the same litters 
as those used in the experiment were kept, in adjacent pens, and 
given the same kind of food. They all remained well. This 
fact in addition to the negative results from the bacteriological 
examination, and the peculiar nature of the lesions are sufficient 
evidence that the sickness and the fatalities among the pigs in the 
experiment were due to the soaps administered. 

It is important to note that the lesions found in the pigs which 
died in the experiment were similar to those found in the pigs in 
certain of the outbreaks mentioned among swill-fed hogs. Con- 
sidering the facts as they appear, it seems highly probable that 
the cause of death of the animals in certain of the outbreaks 
mentioned was the presence of the free alkali in the swill. This 
hypothesis is supported by the experiences of Mr. Davey and 
Dr. McCrank. 

Chemical Analysis of the Soap Powders Used. 

In order to ascertain the chemical nature of these soaps they 
were submitted to Mr. Geo. W. Cavanaugh, Assistant Chemist 
of the Agricultural Experiment Station for analysis. The fol- 
lowing report was received : 

* ' The soap powders used in the above experiment are mixtures 
of ordinary hard soap that has been powdered or in some way 
reduced to a fine condition, and sodium carbonate. Sodium car- 
bonate is known in commerce, as Sal Soda, Washing Soda or Soda. 
In water it forms a caustic solution which is the l5^e used in 
making the old-fashioned hard soaps. 

Analysis. 

Soap A 49.60 per cent. 

Soap B 55-42 per cent. 

SoapC 55.54 per cent. 

(Signed) Geo. W. Cavanaugh, Asst. Chemist." 

A careful inquiry has been made to ascertain the quantity of 
these soaps commonly used in washing dishes. This has revealed 
the fact that while the amount used by different individuals 
varies, the quantity is large, usualh^ far in excess of the amount 
prescribed by the manufacturers. Thus I have been told, by 
thoroughly reliable people, of dish washers who would use one- 



41 6 Bulletin 141. 

third of a box in cleansing the dishes after a single meal. While 
this is extreme, it is said not to infrequently^ happen, and it is 
easy to understand that the swill from these kitchens would con- 
tain far more of the alkali than we found necessary to produce 
fatal results. Should such excess in the use of these cleaning 
agents be indulged in for several da3\s in succession, we have, in 
the light of the foregoing experiment, a cause for many fatalities 
among the hogs fed upon the dish water. 

In view of this danger it seems better to abandon altogether 
the habit of giving dish water to hogs. Although the feeding 
of garbage is generally condemned, the scraps of vegetables and 
table refuse could, perhaps, if properl}- collected be used with 
safety. But certainly pure water is a much more wholesome 
drink, even for swine, than dirty dish water. When the subject 
of ' ' swill feeding " as a business is studied and the conditions as 
they exist are understood the wonder is, not that some of the 
hogs die, but rather, that any of them live. 

It is not presumed that the poisoning by carbonate of sodium, 
is the only cause of death among swill-fed hogs. Other destruc- 
tive agencies are liable to be found in the decomposing garbage. 
The results of the investigation which the necessity of good farm 
hygiene demands will very likely disclose the specific nature of 
many of them. Another fact worthy of consideration is that the 
investigation of the last year shows that nearly all of the out- 
breaks of hog cholera and swine plague which came to our atten- 
tion started among herds of swine fed upon garbage and swill 
collected from the sources above mentioned. This is significant 
and it points to the undesirableness of feeding garbage to 
animals. In fact if the total losses it occasions are counted, it is 
questionable if anything is gained in this attempt to save w^aste 
products. It is stated in the official reports of the U. S. Depart- 
ment of Agriculture that in 1896 12 per cent, (which amounts to 
5,440,176) of the hogs in this country died from disease. 

Again it has long been recognized that the feeding of garbage 
to hogs furnishes one of the most favorable channels for the 
introduction of hog cholera and swine plague bacteria. As a 
rule, wherever we find hogs in clean, well ventilated pens and 
fed upon wholesome food we find thrift and health, and con- 



Death Among Swill-Kkd Hogs. 417 

versely. where these animals are surrounded with disgusting 
filth and fed upon decomposing slops or other unwholesome 
food we expect to and often do find disease. 

It is unfortunately becoming a too prevalent habit among our 
farmers to assume, as soon as one or two pigs die that some infec- 
tious disease, such as hog cholera, is among them. It is further 
most unfortunate that they frequently entertain the fatalistic 
notion that a remedy is beyond their reach. Fully 25 per cent 
of the outbreaks of reported hog cholera which we have investi- 
gated during the past year have not been hog cholera or any 
other known infectious disease. While it is true, that when hog 
cholera becomes well established in a herd there is great danger 
that the majority of the animals will die, it is equalh^ true that 
if the disease is not a genuinely infectious one that a majority of 
the animals can, by proper treatment, be saved. When a pig 
sickens and dies the thing to do is to examine, or have it care- 
fully examined, to find out if possible what the cause of death is, 
in order that the best methods known for preventing the further 
spread of the disease may be promptly adopted. 

If the examination shows the disease to be hog cholera, swine 
plague or any other infectious disease like anthrax or tubercu- 
losis the as yet uninfected and apparently well animals should be 
placed in other pens and the old ones disinfected. The animals 
should be given easily digested and nourishing food, plenty of 
sunlight and pure air. If others should become affected, the well 
ones should again be separated from the sick. The channel or way 
by which the specific cause of the disease got into the herd should 
be diligently sought for. As the most common way is through 
the food it is always a safe precaution to change the diet. 

It is certainly not desirable to acquire the reputation of having 
an infectious disease among one's animals when the real trouble 
is due to poor hygiene, to some irregularity in their care, or to 
an accidental poisoning. 

If the diagnosis can not be positively made it is best to put the 
apparently well hogs in a separate pen, provide them with good 
ventilation, wholesome food and cleanliness. It is importajit that 
the food should be changed. By carefully observing the method of 
strict isolation^ disinfection, healthful surroundings and nourishing 



4i8 Bulletin 141. 

diet man}^ epizootics of infectious diseases have been checked and 
it is safe to presume that if such precautions were rigidly adhered 
to nearly all of the losses now sustained from dietary causes would 
be saved. The observance of the rules necessary for the pro- 
motion of good health among mankind apply with equal force to 
the lower animals. 

CONCLUSIONS. 

From the foregoing the following conclusions seem to be 
warranted. 

1 . The greatest amount of loss sustained from swine diseases 
in this state is among hogs fed upon the swill collected from 
hotels, boarding houses, and other large institutions. 

2. The cause of death in certain outbreaks of disease among 
swill-fed hogs is the direct poisoning of the animals b}^ the 
excess of free alkali (washing soda) in the swill. These alkalies 
come from the powdered soaps used in washing dishes. 

3. It appears that small quantities of the powdered soaps 
do not produce immediate bad results. It is presumable that 
they can be used in (piantities sufficient for the needs of cleanli- 
ness with perfect safety, but owing to the danger involved in their 
UvSe it is safer not to give the water containing them to animals. 

4. In addition to the unwholesomeness of garbage and 
kitchen slops for animal food, and in addition to the losses 
sustained from the immediate effect of such kinds of food, hogs 
fed upon it are very lial)le to contract specific infectious diseases 
such as hog cholera, swine plague and tuberculosis. 

5. The enormous amount of loss among garbage fed hogs, 
which in this state alone aggregates thousands of dollars 
annually, suggests the desirability of urging the discontinuing 
of the practice of collecting swill for such purposes. Certainly 
if the refuse material is to be used for feeding swine it should 
be collected and fed while fresh and sweet. When possible, it 
should be kept dry, and by all means free from alkaline dish 
water. It is advisable to cook all kitchen or table refuse before 
feeding in order to remove the danger of infection from specific 
diseases. The onh' suitable channel for the disposal of dish 
water is the sewer. 

New York State Veterinary College, 
Cornell University, Ithaca, N. Y.,'Oct. 20th, 1897. 



BLOOD SERUM IN THE PREVENTION AND 
TREATMENT OF INFECTIOUS SWINE 
DISEASES WITH A REPORT OF AN 
EXPERIMENT WITH SWINE PLAGUE 
ANTITOXIN. 



By Vekanus A. Moore. 



(From the Proceedings of (lie Eighteenth Annual Meeting of the 

Society for the Promotion of Agricultural Science 

held at Detroit, Mich., August, iSgj.) 



BLOOD SERUM IN THE PREVENTION AND TREAT- 
MENT OF INFECTIOUS SWINE DISEASES WITH 
A REPORT OF AN EXPERIMENT WITH SWINE 
PLAGUE ANTITOXIN. 

BY VERANUS A. MOORE. 

Investigations aiming at the discovery of methods for the pro- 
duction of immunity against hog cholera and swine plague have 
their origin early in the history of bacteriolog}' in America. In 
the beginning, the outlook for practical results was very promis- 
ing, especially after the discovery, in 1885, by Salmon and Smith', 
that pigeons could be made resistant to hog cholera by the sub- 
cutaneous injection of sterilized bouillon cultures of the hog- 
cholera bacillus. In a paper read before the Biological Society of 
Washington, D. C, April 4, 1891, the writer pointed out the 
fact that similar results could be obtained in guinea pigs, but that 
rabbits did not respond in like manner to the same treatment. 
Investigations along these lines were continued in the Bureau of 
Animal Industry until a considerable number of series of experi- 
ments in which the living culture, sterilized bouillon and agar 
cultures, sterilized blood from affected animals, and the serum 
from immune animals were employed in various ways for the pur- 
pose of immunizing guinea-pigs, rabbits, and swine against these 
diseases. The results of certain of these investigations, begun in 
i88g, were published five years later. ^ They show that guinea- 
pigs and rabbits could be immunized against these diseases by 
certain processes, but that frequently there was quite a difference 
in the results of parallel experiments. They demonstrated the 
important facts that there is a marked difference in the produc- 
tion of artificial immunity between the two diseases, as well as 



' Second annual report of the Bureau of Animal Industry-, U. S. Depart- 
ment of Agriculture, 18S5. 

-Theoljald Smith and X'eranus A. Moore. Experiments on the produc- 
tion of immunity in rabbits and guinea-pi^^s with reference to the hog- 
cholera and swine- plague bacteria. Bulletin No. 6, Bureau of Animal 
Industry, I'. vS. Departuieut of Agriculture, 1S94, p. 41. 



TrEATMKXT of IXFECTIOrS SWIXK DiSKASES. 27 

between these species of animals. Of the two, resistance to swine 
plague was more easily obtained than to hog cholera. They 
showed, further, that the blood serum of these animals, after they 
had become innnune to these diseases, was not more efficacious in 
the production of immunity in these species than the sterilized 
cultures. It was also observed that the toxicity of sterilized 
cultures appeared to be directly proportional to the number of 
bacteria in the injected liquid. The most potent immunizing 
agent, especially for swine, found in these experiments, was a 
sterilized suspension of the growth of the hog-cholera bacillus on 
a solid medium (agar). 

Another point of interest, not onh' from the immunity stand- 
point, but also from the differential diagnosis of the two diseases, 
was the demonstration of the fact that guinea-pigs made insus- 
ceptible to swine-plague bacteria, offer no resistance to hog- 
cholera bacteria and vice versa. As wnll be shown later, this has 
a ver}' practical bearing in the use of therapeutic serums in swine 
diseases. 

In 1890, de Schweinitz,^ of the biochemic laborator}- of the 
Bureau of Animal Industry, published the results of experiments 
in the production of immunit}' with the chemical substances 
(Sucholotoxin and sucholo-albumin) which he had isolated from 
pure cultures of hog-cholera bacteria. He summarized his results 
in the following statements : 

' ' That in guinea-pigs, complete immunit}' from hog cholera can 
be produced b}' chemical inoculation. The sucholotoxins and 
sucholo-albumin are equalh^ effective in this respect, and a mix- 
ture of these two products gives greater immunity than either 
used by itself." * * * In a later paper^ he published the 
results of experiments made upon guinea-pigs with the serum 
from a guinea-pig which had been immunized to hog cholera. 
This article indicates that he experienced little or no difficulty in 
obtaining positive results in this species of animals. 

In 1892 Metschnikoff^ stated that immunity could be easily pro- 

^- The Medical News, October 4, 1890. 

^The Medical News, September 24, 1892. 

3 Etudes sur rimtnunite (5 memoire) ; immunite des lapins vaccines 
contre le microbe du hog-cholera. Annales de I'lnstitut Pasteur, VI., 1892, 
p. 289. 



28 Trkatmknt of L\i'i-:cTiors vSwixk DIvSEASEvS. 

duced in rabbits towards hog cholera with the blood serum from 
imiiiune rabbits. Later Dr. Smith^ received a culture from 
Metschnikoff of the ])acillus with which he liad worked, and 
which proved to be that of swine plague and not of hog cholera. 
Tliis harmonized the results obtained by Smith and Moore 
with those reported by the eminent French investigator, namely, 
that rabbits are easily immunized to swine plague. 

In applying the methods found to be fairly satisfactory in the 
production of immunity in these experimental animals to hog 
cholera and swine plague, to swine themselves, ver}' unsatisfac- 
tory results have almost invariably been obtained. The use of 
small quantities of the living culture were likewise untrust- 
worthy, notwithstanding that attenuated living cultures have 
been found quite efficacious in rendering animals resistant against 
certain other diseases. Concerning the use of living virulent 
cultures, there has been some difference of opinion. Billings, 
formerly of the Nebraska State Experiment Station, advocated 
the value of preventive inoculation, but experience has taught 
that this procedure is not practical, and the method has been 
abandoned. 

Serum Therapy in Infectious Swine Diseases. 

As methods for the production of immunity did not, after years 
of the most untiring and careful investigation, reach a practical 
basis, attention has been directed to the treatment of these diseases 
by means of the blood serum from immunized animals. The 
successes obtained with the diphtheria and tetanus antitoxins sug- 
gested that, perhaps, similar results might be realized with the 
swine diseases, and already there has been much activity exhibited 
in exploiting the possibilities of this new field. Many of the 
efforts appear to have been fruitless, but others are giving promise 
of success. The fact should not be lost sight of, that in these 
diseases, more perhaps, than in any others, there are complica- 
tions by way of mixed infection, and the effect of unwholesome 
food and bad environment which may materialh^ change the neu- 
tralizing action and the final result of the antitoxin of either of 
the diseases. 



Loc cit. 



Trkatmkxt of IxFHCTiors S\vix)<: I)isi:asi':s. 29 

Lorenz' seems to have been the first to use serum therapy on 
swine with success. He worked, however, with rouget. After 
immunizing guinea-pigs and rabbits against this disease, he used 
their blood to immunize swine. This being successful, he used 
their blood in immunizing other swine. The method is reported 
to be fairly satisfactory. 

In the fall of 1896 two papers on serum therapy in American 
swine diseases appeared, which indicate that at least some of the 
difficulties heretofore experienced in the direct use of the bac- 
terial products are being overcome. The first of these was read 
before this Society by Dr. E. A. de Schweinitz^ of the Bureau of 
Animal Industry. He used antitoxin serum which was prepared 
by repeatedly inoculating a cow. With the blood serum of this 
animal, positive and constant results were obtained in guinea-pigs. 
The amount of this antitoxin required was 6 c.c. per pound 
weight of guinea-pig. We are promised, in the paper, a full and 
detailed account of this and other experiments in this line. 

Dr. A. T. Peters^ of the Experiment Station of Nebraska, pre- 
sented the other communication before U.S. Veterinar}' Medical 
Association. He inoculated horses with virulent cultures of the 
hog-cholera bacillus, beginning with 5 c.c. and increasing the 
quantit}' until 200 c.c. was given at a time without apparent dis- 
comfort. After the animal ceased to react to the cultures, a 
small quantit)- of the blood was drawn and tested on rabbits after 
the method used in testing diphtheria antitoxin on guinea-pigs. 
When the liorses were sufficiently immunized, their serum was 
tried on swine. His laboratory experiments show that it took 
from 8 to 10 c.c. of the undiluted serum to make a hog weigh- 
ing 150 pounds immune to hog cholera. At the writing of his 
paper, the serum had been tried in about 23 herds reported to be 
affected with hog cholera. From several of these, encouraging 
results had been obtained. 

The criticism on the paper, as brought out in the discussion 



T Deutsche Zeitschrift fiir Thiermedicin, Bd. XX. 

^ Proceedings of the Society for the Promotion of Agricultural Science, 
1896, p. 47- 

'Serum therapy in hog cholera. Proceedings of the U. S. Veterinary 
Medical Association, 1896, p. 159. 



30 Tkkatmkxt of IxFKCTiors vSwixk Diskasks. 

which followed it, is, that positive evidence of the accuracy of 
the diagnosis of the disease in the herds in which the serum was 
used, was not ])rocured. Further, the usual mortality in simi- 
larly affected herds which were not treated is omitted. If the 
disease which he treated in the field was genuine hog cholera, 
his results were quite reassuring. 

Soon after the publication of the last mentioned papers, Per- 
roncito'" announced the discovery of a vaccine for hog cholera. 
This, I am told, is a l)lood product. It has become an article of 
connnerce without having, to my knowledge, its efhciency veri- 
fied for the disease as it occurs in this country. From the notice 
and circulars sent out, 3 c.c. is the dose. In France it is stated 
that the sale of serums is authorized by law only after the Acad- 
emy of Medicine has given its approval to samples and inspected 
the laboratories where they are made, but we are not similarly 
protected either by State or national laws. 



A Field Experiment with the Swine Plagfue Serum Prepared by 
the Bureau of Animal Industry. 

In January last, I had occasion to make an investigation into 
the nature of an infectious disease which was destroying many 
swine in a herd near Auburn, N. Y. The history of the herd 
and the appearance of the disease up to this time, as related by 
the owner of the animals, is briefly stated as follows : 

The herd consisted of 72 animals, mostly shoats, some of 
which had been purchased in the vicinity and the others raised 
on the place. They had run together about the premises until 
late in the fall. Early in December they were divided into th- ee 
lots and penned. 

In pen No. i were 14 yearling hogs weighing about 250 lbs. each. 
In pen No. 2 were 37 black and white shoats weighing about 60 

lbs. each. 
In pen No. 3 were 21 white shoats weighing about 40 lbs. each. 

Pens Nos. i and 2 were in the same building, but separated by 
a tight partition and several feet of floor space. Pen No. 3 was 



*° Noticed in Recueil de Medecine V^terinaire, VI. (1897), p. 71. 



Treatment of Ixkectious vSwinic I)isi':ases. 31 

a building by itself standing about 300 feet from the first. The 
animals had been and were still being fed on swill ol^tained from 
the State prison at Auburn. Late in Decem])er the pigs in pen 
No. I began to sicken and die. The symptoms were said to be 
the refusal of food and a bad cough which developed a few days 
before death. A little later the older hogs in pen No. i were 
attacked and 9 of them died. 

At the time of my first visit (Jan. 28) about 40 animals had 
died. Those which I found living were in pens as follows : 
In pen No. i, there w^ere 5 hogs all apparently well. 
In pen No. 2, there were 4 pigs all sick. 
In pen No. 3, there were 19 pigs all apparently well. 
In pen No. 4, there were 2 pigs wdiich had been taken from pen 
No. 2, after the disease had appeared. The}^ were 
well. 
In pen No. 5, there was i pig which had been taken from pen 
No. 3, because it looked sick. 

The hogs had died at the rate of one or two a da}^ after a sick- 
ness of from a few days to three weeks duration. I found tw^o 
dead hogs from pen No. i . They had been dead about ten and 
twent3^-four hours respectively. Just before m^^ arrival one of 
the pigs from pen No. 2 had been killed, in what was thought 
the last stages of the disease, by Mr. Quigley, state inspector, 
and sent to me b}^ express. It was received and examined the 
following morning. The two old hogs w^ere carefully examined 
at the time. 

The lesions found in both of these animals were extensive 
hepatization of the lungs. In both animals the cephalic, ventral, 
and a portion of the principal or caudal lobes were involved. In 
one of them there was extensive pleuritis. The spleens were 
slightly enlarged and dark colored. The mesenteric glands w^ere 
enlarged and hyperaemic, in a few instances the cortex was 
hemorrhagic. This was especially true with those along the 
smaller curvature of the stomach. The intestines presented a 
few areas of hyperaemia, but no distinct lesions. Tubes of agar 
inoculated from the spleen and lungs gave pure cultures of swine 
plague bacteria. Rabbits inoculated with pieces of the hepatized 
lung died of swine plague on the fifth day. Those inoculated 
with the culture died in a shorter time. 



32 Tkkat.micxt of IxFECTioi's SwixE Diseases. 

The small pig did not show any decided lesions. Cultures 
made from its organs either did not develop or they contained 
impure growths of saprophytic bacteria. 

As the disease appeared to be swine plague, thoi gh probal^ly 
of a sporadic form, it seemed to be a suitable outbri^ak in which 
to try the serum therapy. Prior to this I had been requested to 
try this serum if an opportunity occurred. And while this was 
by no means the ideal time in the course of the outbreak to begin, 
it was thought best to try it. Unfortunately only a small quan- 
tity of the serum was obtainal)le at this time. 

Feb. II, I again visited the outbreak in company with Mr. 
Quigle3\ We found that no deaths had occurred during the 
interim, but that the disease had appeared in pen 3 and three of 
the pigs were very sick. Those in pen 2 were about the same as 
when last seen. As I had but 11 doses of the serum, the follow- 
ing animals were injected. In selecting these the wishes of the 
owner were largely observed. 
In pen No. i, 2 hogs received subcutaneoush^ 24 c.c. each. 

1 hog received subcutaneously 12 c.c. 

2 hogs were reserved for checks. 

In pen No. 2, 4 pigs received subcutaneously 12 c.c. each. 
In pen No. 3, 3 pigs received subcutaneously 12 c.c. each. 

These were sick. They were removed to another 
pen. 

In pen No. 5, i pig received sul)cutaneously 12 c.c. Sick. 

Feb. 18, I again inspected the animals and found three of the 
treated ones dead. These were : i from pen 2 ; i from pen 3 ; 
and the one in pen 5. They were examined carefully post mor- 
tem and the lesions found were indicative of swine plague. The 
lungs were more or less hepatized. The spleens were slightly 
enlarged and the mesenteric glands were somewhat oedematous. 
The intestines were normal in appearance. From two of the 
animals the swine plague bacillus was obtained. Cultures were 
not made from the third on account of post mortem changes. 
The remaining pigs in pen No. 2 were no worse, and the other 
two from pen No. 3 were decidedly ])etter. There had been no 
other deaths. 

February 27 I found a second pig dead from pen No. 2. The 



Treatment of Infectious Swine DiseAvSes. 33 

disease had again appeared in pen No. 3 and one animal had died. 
The post mortem examination of these two pigs showed exten- 
sive lung d sease. The intestines were not affected. Rabbits 
inoculated \ -itli bits of the lung tissue of the pig from pen 3 
died on the sixth day, with attenuated swine plague, as shown 
by the extensive pleuritis. 

At the request of the owner, more of the serum was obtained and 
on March i the remainder of the pigs in pen No. 3 were treated. 
During the time two of them had died, leaving but 13 still 
living. More than half of these were coughing. They were all 
injected subcutaneously in the groin with 12 c. c. each of the 
swine plague serum. The two dead pigs were, for want of time, 
hurriedly examined and the lesions found to be restricted to the 
organs in the thoracic cavity. 

During the next two weeks, five of the last treated pigs died. 
The}^ were not examined as word of their death was not received 
until some days later. The remaining eight remained well or 
recovered, and subsequently they were reported as growing 
nicely. I saw^ them the latter part of April and the}^ looked 
perfect!}' well. The two survivors of the first lot of three from 
this pen recovered rapidly. Later the remaining two pigs in pen 
No. 2 died. None of the hogs in pen No. i were attacked after 
the treatment. They were sold late in March. 

To summarize, there were at first 11 animals treated, of which 
8 were obviously sick at the time they were given the serum. 
Of these 6 died. Later 13 others were injected. Of these 8 
were obviously sick at the time of treatii^ and 5 died. Of the 
total of 24 treated animals, 11 died and i^^survived. 

In drawing conclusions from this experiment several facts must 
be taken into consideration. Although all of the animals were 
not examined, there were enough post mortems to show that the 
disease was ver}- probably uncomplicated swine plague. It did 
not spread, however, to other herds in the localit)' and a 
neighbor fed swill from the same source to his hogs without loss. 

At the time the treatment began, 40 animals had alread}^ died, 
so that among the survivors we may have had those possessed of 
stronger resisting power. Again, the virus obtained from the 
different animals was of the attenuated variety, showing that 



34 Treatment of Infectious Swine Diseases. 

possibl}' the disease was well nigh spent at the time the treatment 
was begun. 

On the other hand, the disease in pen No. 3 did not appear 
until just before the treatment. The owner had tried to keep 
these animals isolated from the others, but in spite of this there 
was much running, by the farm hands, from pens i and 2 to this 
one. The perfect recover}' of two of the ver)^ sick pigs first 
treated, from pen No. 3, is very suggestive of a specific action on 
the part of the serum. Again, all of the animals attacked, and 
which were not treated, died, while of the 24 treated at least 16 
were obviously sick at the time, and of these at least five recov- 
ered. The pigs did not receive the care either in protection from 
the cold and wet or in their food which good farm hygiene 
demands. All things considered, therefore, the results are, if 
taken at their worst, encouraging. 

It is difficult to draw further conclusions from this experiment 
or the results of others herein referred to. Just what the action 
on the animal body of the toxin injected is, by which it is con- 
verted into an antitoxin has not as yet been satisfactorily 
explained. The investigations have not advanced sufficiently to 
enable us to say what species of animals will furnish the best anti- 
toxin, but if it is to become practicable it seems that it must be one 
of the larger, such as the cow or horse. The question has also 
arisen, w^hether or not the method will be practicable even if the 
serum can be made efficient. To this a positive answer can not 
be given, but it seems highly probable that it can. It is easih* 
administered, and the cost of its preparation ought not to pre- 
clude its use. It is suggested by the work on guinea-pigs that 
the serum for hog cholera and swine plague can not be made inter- 
changeable, neither can they be made a specific for dietary and 
filth diseases. These must be eliminated by the introduction of 
better sanitary methods. From the successes reported from 
serum therapy in other diseases it is reasonable to expect, that 
eventuall}' we may have antitoxins for the bacterial diseases of 
swine. Certainly, the results of the experiment just described 
indicate that the investigations along these lines are more prom- 
ising than any others which have been proposed for the discovery 
of a specific for swine plague. 
New York State Veterinary College, 
Cornell University, Ithaca, N. Y. 



[Reprinted from the American Veterinary Review, March. 1898.] 



REMARKS ON THE NATURE AND THE DIFFEREN- 
TIATION OF THE INFECTIOUS SWINE DIS- 
EASES IN THE UNITED STATES.* 

By Veranus A. Moore, B.S., M.D. 

Professor of Comparative Pathology and Bacteriology. Ne^v York State Veterinary 
College, Cornell University, Ithaca, N. V. 



We sometimes hear that there is much confusion concern- 
ing the knowledge of the infectious swine diseases in the United 
States. Perhaps for a brief time early in the history of their in- 
vestigation, this was the case, but at present our pathologists 
are, with possibly a very few exceptions, agreed on their morbid 
anatomy and etiology. There appears, however, to be an ele- 
ment of uncertainty concerning them entertained by a few 
writers, more especially among those who have not had an op- 
portunity of studying them as they exist in epizootic form. 
The fact must be admitted, therefore, that while these diseases 
have been clearly defined in the official reports of the Bureau of 
Animal Industry, U. S. Department of Agriculture, and by 
pathologists and bacteriologists in other institutions, there have 
appeared, both at home and abroad, statements of a contradictory 
nature which have tended to confuse the reader of the recent 
literature upon this subject. The difficulty, however, is in the 
interpretation rather than in the lack of the existence of defi- 
nite knowledge concerning the nature and cause of these mala- 
dies. Although our knowledge of their natural history is far 
from being complete, no one familiar with the facts, as they are 
recorded, can feel that American swine diseases have not been 
carefully investigated. 

As the advance in human medicine depends so largely upon 
the results of comparative and experimental pathology, it is 



* Read before the Section of Pathology and Bacteriology of the British Medical Asso- 
ciation at the Montreal meeting, Sept., 1897. 



VERANUS A, MOORE, B.S., M.D. 



highly important that the nature of the maladies in question 
should be clearly understood, for among animal diseases there 
are none which are more analogous to certain human affections 
than these bacterial plagues of swine. If the suggestion that 
this subject should be opened for discussion was correctly in- 
terpreted it was for the purpose of having some of the essential 
features of these diseases, as they have been determined by Ameri- 
can investigators, again pointed out that their differences and 
their independent existence could be more fully appreciated. 
As I understand the situation all elements of confusion will be 
removed if the following questions can be clearly and fully 
answered : 

1. Concerning the nomenclature of infectious swine diseases 
in Europe and America. Which of the names given to the dis- 
eases of swine are synonyms of hog cholera, which of swine 
plague, and which represent other affections ? 

2. Concerning their morbid anatomy. What are the lesions 
characteristic of hog cholera and what are those diagnostic of 
swine plague ? 

3. Concerning their etiology. What are the morphological 
characters, biochemic and pathogenic properties by which the 
hog-cholera and swine-plague bacteria can be differentiated ? 

In a paper of this length it is impossible to answer these 
questions in detail, but it is hoped that some of the essential 
truths may be pointed out and that references * may be given 
to such papers and reports that any who may desire, can find 
the entire story, as it is known at the present time, in our most 
authoritative publications. 

In the United States of America two infectious diseases pe- 
culiar to swine have been described under the names of hog 
cholera and swine plague. The third malady — swine erysipe- 



* In citing the literature, reference is made simply to the more important papers giv- 
ing the results of original investigations which have been made in this country. The 
•criticisms, controversial writings and more popular articles must, for want of space, be 
omitted. An abstract of nearly all the papers relating to these diseases may be found in 
the lahresbericht liber die Leistungen auf dem Gebiete \'eterinar-Medicin, and also in 
Baumgarten's Jahresbericht, 1885-1896, 



INFECTIOUS SWINE DISEASES IN THE UNITED STATES. 3 

las, roiiget or i^d?////^?///^— peculiar to this species has not been 
found to be the cause of destructive outbreaks, although an 
organism closely related to, if not identical with, the bacilhis of 
rouget has on at least three occasions * been isolated from swine. 
In each of these instances it was obtained from one animal only. 
Omitting, therefore, from this discussion this possible, but as yet 
in America unrecognized disease, we pass to the consideration 
of the two maladies first mentioned. 

The investigation into the nature and cause of infectious 
diseases among swine was undertaken by the U. S. Department 
of Agriculture more than twenty years ago. Among the reports 
of the earlier investigators is one by Prof. James Law,t in which 
we find the lesions carefully described and a list of seventeen 
names under which the then supposedly single disease existed. 
Among these are hog cholera, enteric fever, gastro-enteritis, and 
others suggestive of the external manifestations of the disease 
such as erysipelas, measles and scarlatina, but none to indicate 
pneumonia or lung lesions of any kind. In consulting the ear- 
lier literature on swine diseases in England, we find practically 
the same nomenclature. The descriptions of the morbid 
anatomy are likewise very similar, and writers in both countries, 
but more especially Dr. Budd of England, have pointed out the 
similarity of this disease to typhoid fever in man. Up to the 
time of the investigations about to be mentioned, however, the 
opinion seems to have been that there was but one infectious 
disease peculiar to swine in America. In 1885 the investigators 
in the U. S. Bureau of Animal Industry discovered and de- 
scribed X its specific organism. The disease was given the name 



* Smith, Report of the Bureau of Animal Industry, U. S. Department of Agriculture, 
1885, p. 196. 

Ibid., 1895-96, p. 166. 

Moore, The Journal Compar. Medicine and Vet. Archives, 1892, p. ■t^t^t^. 

t Report of the U. S. Commissioner of Agriculture for 1875. 

X First Annual Report of the Bureau of Animal Industry, U. S. Department of Agri- 
culture, 1885, p. 212. 

A summary of the results of the yearly investigations of the Bureau of Animal Indus- 
try may be found in the Annual Reports of the U. S. Department of Agriculture for 
1884-1893. 



VERANUS A. MOORE, B.S., M.D. 



swine plague and its organism was designated the bacterium of 
swine plague. 

In the following year (1886) Dr. Theobald Smith '^' discov- 
ered another bacterial disease among swnne. It was found to 
be similar to the German SchiveineseiicJic^ both in its morbid 
anatomy and in the morphology and properties of its specific 
organism. In naming this disease the Bureau of Animal In- 
dustry called it, on account of its similarity to the German 
Schweineseuche^ swine plague, and its organism the bacillus of 
swine plague, and changed the name of the disease described in 
1885 to hog cholera and its organism to the bacterium t of hog 
cholera. The changing of the name of the first disease de- 
scribed from swine plague to hog cholera has been the cause of 
some criticism and it has been credited with the responsibility 
of creating confusion. It has, perhaps, led hasty readers to a 
misinterpretation of these diseases and their relation to those 
described in other lands under different titles. While the names 
assigned may not have been especially happy ones, the transfer 
of swine plague from the intestinal to the lung disease must be 
considered as a fortunate occurrence and one wdiich tended to 
simplify and not to confuse. 

Dr. F. S. Billings, of the Nebraska State Experiment Station, 
opposed this classification. He not only refused to accept the 
change and continued to write about hog cholera under the 
title of swine plague, but he denied the existence of the swine 
plague, as described in the reports of the Bureau of Animal In- 
dustry for 1886 and subsequently, as an independent disease. 
The wide dissemination of his publications on this subject has 
unquestionably been responsible for much of the haziness con- 
cerning the distinguishing features of these diseases. 

In 1893 Drs. Welch and Clements J read a paper before the 



* Second Annual Report of the Bureau of Animal Industry, i8S6. 

t In 1888 the genus Bacterium was changed to Bacilhcs and this organism i, spoken 
of since that time as the hog- cholera bacillus. 

X Welch and Clements, Remarks on Hog Cholera and Swine Plague, First Interna- 
tional Congress of .\merica held in Chicago, 111., October, 1893. 



INFECTIOUS SWINE DISEASES IN THE UNITED STATES. 



International Veterinary Congress in which they gave a very clear 
history of the nomenclatnre of these diseases and in which they 
adhered to the classification of the Bnreau of Animal Industry. 

They also included in this paper the results of their investi- 
gations of numerous outbreaks of hog cholera, often complicated 
with swine plague, in the State of Maryland. The very few 
points in the pathology on which they differ from the conclu- 
sions of the Bureau will be referred to in later paragraphs. 

In order that this part of the subject may be as clear as 
possible I have appended a partial list of the names assigned to 
those swine diseases which have been found to be identical 
with, or closely related to, the American hog cholera and swine 
plague. The results of the more important of the large num- 
ber of special investigations which have been made in both the 
United States and in Europe to determine these facts have been 
largely brought together in the writings of Drs. Smith and 
Welch, who themselves have done most to elucidate our knowl- 
edge of these affections. 

SYNONOMY. 





Diseases. 


OOTT'N'T^T? V 






Hog Cholera. 


Swine Plague. 


United States . . . 


Hog Cholera^ 


Swine Plague^ 


. ( ( ( ( 


Swine Plague ^ 




England 


Swine Fever ^ 
Pneumo-enteritis* 
Pig Typhoid 5 




Denmark and Sweden 


Svinpest*^ 
Svinediphteritis'^ 




France 


Pneumo Enterite du Pore 
Hog Cholera « 




Germany .... 




Schweineseuche ^ 



I. Salmon and Smith. Annual Reports of the Bureau of Animal Industry, 1885 and 
since that time. 

Salmon. Special Report on Hog Cholera, its History, Nature and Treatment. 
/du/., 1889. 

Smith. Special Report on the Cause and Prevention of Swine Plague. IdtW., 1891. 
Welch. Report of Investigations concerning the Causation of Hog Cholera. 
Johns Hopkins Bulletin, No. i, 1889. 



VERANUS A. MOORE, B.S. , M.D. 



I am not familiar with authoritative statements of the exist- 
ence of hog cholera or a like disease in Germany. The same is 
true of swine plague in France. The disease described by 
Cornil and Chantemesse as being identical with Schweineseuche 
was found not to be swine plague but probably hog cholera. 
With swine plague in Germany and hog cholera in France it is 
probable that both of these diseases may be found in each of 
these countries. .Whether or not swine plague exists in Eng- 
land I will leave for her pathologists to answer. 

CONCERNING THE MORBID ANATOMY OF HOG CHOLERA AND 

SWINE PLAGUE. 

In the reports of the Bureau of Animal Industry hog 
cholera is described as occurring in tw^o forms, acute and 
chronic. In the first the lesions are of a congestive or haemor- 
rhagic natuie, while in the second they are characterized by dis- 
tinctive tissue changes such as the " button " ulcers in the 
intestines, especially the csecum and upper colon, enlarged and 
discolored spleen, enlarged and often haemorrhagic lymphatic 
glands and usually hepatic and renal changes. Broncho-pneu- 
monia is occasionally present. The chronic form is most fre- 
quently encountered. 

W^elch and Clements* look upon the formation of the " but- 



Loc. lit. 



Smith. Zur Kenntniss der Amerikanischen Schweineseuche. Zeitschrift fiir Hy- 
giene, 1891, S. 480. 

Smith. Zur Kenntniss des Hogcholerabacillus. Centralblatt fiir Bakteriologie und 
Parasitenkunde, Bd. IX. (1891) S. 253. 

2. Billings. Bulletins Neb. Agricultural Experiment Station 1888. Also many 
special publications and contributions to various veterinary journals. 

3. Brown. Report of the Agricultuial Department, London, 1886. 

4. Klein. Seventh annual report. Local Government Board, London, 1877. Vir- 
chow's Archiv, 1884, Bd. XCV., S. 468. 

5. Budd. Veterinarian, 1865, p. 521. 

6. Selander. Centralblatt fin- Bacteriologie und Parasitenkunde, 1888, i. S. 362. 

7. Lundgren. Ref. Jahresbericht de Veterinar-Medicin, 1889. 

8. Metschnikoff. Annales de I'lnstitut Pasteur, VI., 1892, p. 289. 

9. Loetller. Arbeiten aus dem kaiserlichen Gesundheitsampten. Bd. I., (1885) 
S. 51. 

Schiitz. Ibid., S. 376. 



INFECTIOUS SWINE DISEASES IN THE UNITED STATES. 7 

ton " ulcers as the most diagnostic of the lesions. These, of 
course, do not appear in the acute type where death occurs in a 
very short time, and consequently they cannot always be relied 
upon in making the diagnosis. During the last year we have 
seen the disease in its congestive or hcemorrhagic form, as de- 
scribed in the Bureau Repons, and the diagnosis was confirmed 
by obtaining pure cultures of the hog-cholera bacillus from the 
blood, liver and spleen. As pointed out by Smith, this form of 
the disease is rare. Welch and Clements mention it in cases 
produced by the intravenous inoculation of pure cultures, but it 
seems that they did not meet with it in more natural outbreaks. 
Space does not permit of a more extended account of the mor- 
bid anatomy as a wide range of lesions or modified forms is ad- 
mitted. Suffice it to say, that the tissue changes found in a 
typical case of chronic hog cholera are quite analogous to those 
described in a similar case of typhoid fever in the human sub- 
ject. 

Swine plague is considered by Smith* to be an infectious 
pneumoenteritis as the intestines are frequently involved, but 
more often the lesions are restricted, for the greater part, to the 
lungs and pleura, and hence it is also called an infectious pneu- 
monia. The morbid changes in the intestines usually consist, 
when present, of a superficial necrosis of the mucous membrane 
rather than distinct ulcers as in hog cholera. He describes it 
as an independent disease although frequently complicated with 
hog cholera. On this point there is some difference of opinion. 
Billings denies its existence excepting as a secondary infection. 
Welch and Clements * have not found outbreaks of pure or un- 
complicated swine plague such as occur of Schweinseuche in 
Germany, but they have reported isolated cases and do not doubt 
the possibility of its occurrence in epizootic form. It was found 
by them, as it frequently appeared in Smith's investigations, 
complicated with hog cholera or with lesions which they be- 
lieved to be due to the hog-cholera bacillus. The disentangling 
of the lesions of these two diseases has been difficult, perhaps 

* Loc. cit. 



VERANUS A. MOORE, B.S., M.D. 



the most so of any of the problems encountered in their inves- 
tigation, and it will still be necessary to have the results of 
other and repeated observations before we can fully describe 
the range of morbid anatomy possible in either affection. Per- 
haps of the mooted questions the most important is in regard to 
the existence of swine plague in epizootic form. 

Concerning swine plague as an independent disease the fol- 
lowing, and heretofore unpublished observations, are of special 
interest. In the late fall of 1895 I had occasion to spend a few 
weeks with Dr. C. N. Hewitt, of the State Beard of Health, 
studying an infectious swine disease in southern ]\Iinnesota. 
During this period we made careful post-mortems, and as 
thorough a bacteriological examination as it was possible under 
the circumstances, of one or more animals in each of twenty- 
nine herds. In many of these cases the lesions were largely 
restricted to the lungs, the digestive tract being normal. On 
the other hand, the ventral, cephalic and cephalic portion of 
the principal or caudal lobe of one, and usually of both lungs, 
were hepatized. As a rule there was no pleuritis. Pure cul- 
tures of the swine-plague organism were obtained, and rabbits 
inoculated with pieces of the hepatized lung from a few of the 
animals, died in from 16 to 48 hours of septicaemia, due to the 
swine-plague bacillus. 

In a few cases the lesions varied from this form. Thus in 
one instance, a pig, of about thirty pounds weight, exhibited a 
slightly enlarged spleen, haemorrhagic kidneys, and small areas 
of slight hyperaemia of the mucous membrane of the intestine. 
The tips of the ventral lobes of both lungs were collapsed. 
From the kidney, pure cultures of a very virulent swine-plague 
organism were obtained. Rabbits inoculated with a bit of the 
cortex of one of the kidneys died in 16 hours and from its organs 
pure cultures of swine-plague bacteria \vere secured. In a few 
herds, especially those near villages w^here the pigs were fed 
largely on kitchen refuse, there were a considerable variety of le- 
sions from which Bacillus coli codduidus and other bacteria were 
isolated, but, so far as I was able to determine, the bacillus of 



INFECTIOUS SWINE DISEASES IN THE UNITED STATES. 



hog cholera was not present. In these cases the swine-plaoue 
bacillus was obtained. 

The disease in these herds invariably ran a rapidly fatal 
conrse, and in many herds over ninety per cent, of the hogs died. 
The most prononnced symptom observed was a severe congh 
which was brought on if the sick animals were forced to run. 
This, with the refusal of food, w^re the only ones reported by 
the owners. The origin of the disease had been traced by sev- 
eral local health officers to a drove of swine which had been 
brought into the locality and sold. While these observations 
cannot be considered as conclusive evidence of the singleness of 
the disease, as a careful bacteriological examination was not 
made of all of the animals which died in a single outbreak, the 
occurrence of uncomplicated pneumonia in animals in various 
stages of the disease in the different herds is highly suggestive 
that the disease was pure swdne plague in epizootic form. 

During the past year I have examined several animals from 
a number of outbreaks of infectious swine disease in the State 
of New York. In two of these outbreaks the lesions found in 
the pigs examined w^ere pneumonia with and without pleuritis. 
The spleens were usually enlarged. The intestines w^ere not 
affected. The bacteriological examination revealed the presence 
of swine-plague bacteria, but hog-cholera bacilli were not found. 
In a few outbreaks there were mixed infections such as described 
by Smith, and later by Welch and Clements. 

These investigations support the conclusions of Dr. Smith 
that swine plague is an independent disease although it often 
exists associated wdth hog cholera. An explanation for the fre- 
quency of the latter condition will be suggested in a later para- 
graph. 

To summarize, the differentiation of these diseases by their 
morbid anatomy is, in typical cases, not difficult. In hog chol- 
era there are ulcers in the intestines with enlarged and often 
hsemorrhagic lymphatic gland, engorged and darkened spleen, and 
usually changes in the kidney and liver. In swine plague there 
is more or less hepatization of one or both lungs with or with- 



10 VERANUS A. MOORE, B.S., M.D. 

out pleuritis. There may be slig-ht morbid changes in the ab- 
dominal organs. In the atypical cases, which the reports show 
are very numerous, there may be marked variations in the 
nature of the lesions. In fact, the course of either disease may 
become so changed that its nature cannot be determined at the 
post-mortem. In these, and in very acute cases where either 
disease may become a septicaemia, the macroscopic examination 
must be supplemented by the results of a bacteriological inves- 
tigation before a positive diagnosis is warranted. The only final 
test of the nature of the disease is the character of the bacteria 
responsible for it. 

THE BACTERIA OF HOG CHOLERA AND SWINE PLAGUE. 

The various accounts of the specific bacteria of hog cholera 
and swine plague have led to more confusion than those relating 
to their morbid anatomy. These bacteria have been fully and 
clearly described in the reports of the Bureau of Animal Indus- 
try and in certain other publications. In addition to the orig- 
inal descriptions, the differences between these two species have 
been pointed out repeatedly by pathologists in other countries, 
especially in Germany. Notwithstanding, errors have appeared 
either through accident or misinterpretation. Thus, Schoug * 
decided from his bacteriological investigations that hog cholera, 
swine plague and Schweineseuche were identical. Selander f 
and IMetschnikoff X published some startling results from inves- 
tigations with the bacillus of hog cholera and which they stated 
was identical with the bacillus of American hog cholera (Sal- 
mon). Their experiments were carefully repeated in the Bureau 
of Animal Industry with conflicting results. Those of Selander 
were also repeated by Prof. Welch with a similar outcome. 
Upon examination of the organism with which they worked, a 



* Ref. Jahresbericht der V^eterinar-Medicin, 1889. 
t Annales de I'lnstitut Pasteur, IV. (1890), p. 543. 

A report of the experiments made to verify Selander's statements in this article are 
given in Bulletin No. 6, Bureau of Animal Industry, 1894, p. 97. 
+ Lor. cit. 



INFECTIOUS SWINE DISEASES IN THE UNITED STATES. 11 

culture of which was kindly sent to Dr. Salmon by Metsch- 
nikoff, it was found to be the bacillus of swine plague. The 
results which they had reported were not strikingly different 
from those which we have obtained under certain conditions, 
with the swine-plague organism. To understand their results, 
in the light of those obtained in this country, it is necessary to 
read swine plague where they have written hog cholera. By 
doing this, the confusion which otherwise will be caused by 
their articles on the hog-cholera bacillus will be avoided. 

In the last edition of his Text Book of Bacteriology and In- 
fective Diseases, 1897, Crookshank writes that, "the bacillus 
isolated by Loeffler and Schlitz from swine fever in Germany 
iSchzveineseuche) has been identified with the bacillus isolated 
by Salmon and Smith from hog cholera in America, and with 
the bacillus of rabbit septicaemia and of fowl cholera." Such 
statements are certainly confusing. 

Again we find the influence of Billings' interpretations, pub- 
lished long after the bacteria in question were described, in 
which he states that the bacillus of swine plague"^ is actively 
motile. During the past year I have received statements from 
two distinguished bacteriologists of the existence of motile swine- 
plague bacilli. This is important, for it shows an unmistakable 
error somewhere. If we have been in the wrong concerning the 
motility of this organism, we are ready upon sufficient evidence 
to retract, but thus far we have not observed either independent 
movement or the organs of locomotion (flagella) on this species 
of bacteria. It is not surprising, however, that after the appear- 
ance of so much literature in which the swine-plague bacillus 
has been assigned the morphology and properties of the bacillus 
of hog cholera that confusion should arise. 

In comparing these two species of bacteria it is necessary for 
our purpose to call attention simply to their more essential 
properties which may be considered of differential value. In 
order that these may be more easily contrasted I have arranged 
them in like order in parallel columns. 

■'^ He is writing of the disease known to the Bureau of Animal Industry as hog cholera. 



12 



VERANUS A. MOORE, B.S., M.D. 



Bacillus of hog cholera. 

1. Rod- shaped organism with ends 
rounded, 1.2 to 2.0j in length, 0.5 to o.S/i 
in width. The size varies according to the 
stage of growth and division, and the culture 
media. 

2. From cultures it stains entirely. In 
tissues it usually stains around the periphery 
with darker extremities leaving a light 
centre. 

3. Actively motile in liquids. 

4. From 3 to 9 flagella are demonstra- 
ble. 

5. Vigorous growth in alkaline nutrient 
liquids. Less vigorous if liquids are acid 
in reaction. 

6. Moderate growth on potato. (Varies 
according to reaction. ) 

7. Distinct growth on gelatin. 

8. vSaponifies milk in from 3 to 4 weeks. 

9. Ferments dextrose with the formation 
of acids and gas. 

10. Does not ferment lactose. Bouillon 
containing it becomes strongly alkaline. 
No gas. 

11. Does not ferment saccharose. 
Bouillon containing it becomes strongly 
alkaline. No gas. 

12. Destroyed by moist heat at 58° C. in 
15 minutes. 

13. Dies in water in from 2 to 4 months. 

14. It dies in the soil in from 2 to 3 
months. 

15. Rabbits injected subcutaneously 
with 0.1 c.c. of a bouillon culture of a 
virulent bacillus will die in from 5 to 7 
days. Enlarged spleen, necrotic foci in 
liver. 

16. Rabbits inoculated with culture of 
an attenuated variety live from 10 to 20 
days or recover. The lesions are enlarged 
spleen, and infiltration of the follicles in 
Peyer's patches. 

17. In guinea-pigs the lesions are prac- 
tically the same as in rabbits. Death oc- 
curs in from 7 to 12 days. 



Bacillus of s'i'ine plague. 

1. Elongated oval organism 0.8 to 1.5^ 
in length, 0.6 to 0.8/1 in thickness. The 
size varies according to the stage of growth 
and division, and the culture media. 

2. From old cultures it usually stains en- 
tirely. When in process of division as 
found in the organs ot freshly dead rabbits 
the extremities stain leaving an unstained 
central band, " polar stain." 

3. Not motile in liquids. 

4. No flagella have been found. 

5. ( Jrowth moderate or feeble in alkaline 
nutrient liquids. No growth if liquids are 
acid 

6. No growth on potato. 

7. Feeble or no growth on gelatin. 

8. Produces no apparent change in milk. 

9. P'erments dextrose with the formation 
of acids but no gas. 

10. Does not ferment lactose. No gas. 



11. Ferments saccharose with the forma- 
tion of acids. No gas. 

12. Destroyed by moist heat at 58° C. 
in 7 minutes. 

13. Dies in water in from lo to 15 days. 

14. It dies in the soil in from 4 to 6 
days. 

15. Rabbits injected subcutaneously with 
o.oi c.c. of a bouillon culture of a virulent 
bacillus will die in from 16 to 20 hours. 
Septicctmia. 

16. Rabbits inoculated with a culture of 
an attenuated variety will live from 4 to lo 
days. The lesions are local infiltration of 
pus cells with pleuritis, pericarditis or peri- 
tonitis. 

17. Cluinea-pigs are slightly less suscep- 
tible than rabbits. There is more local re- 
action. Death occurs in from i to 4 days. 



INFECTIOUS SWINE DISEASES IN THE UNITED STATES. 13 

1 8. Pigs are not usually aftecled by sub- 18. Pigs are not usually affected by the 
cutaneous injection of small quantities of subcutaneous injection of small quantities 
culture. If the pigs are killed within i of culture. The bacilli are not found ex - 
to 3 weeks the bacilli are found in the local cept in the local lesion. In a few cases 
lesion and certain of the lymphatic fatal results are reported 

glands.* Fatal results are reported in a 
few cases by these injections. 

19. Feeding cultures to pigs which have 19. Feeding cultures to pigs usually pro- 
fasted for 24 hours produces extensive in- duces no effect. 

testinal lesions with fatal results. 

20. Intravenous inoculation into pigs 20. Intravenous inoculation into pigs 
causes either an acute septicaemia or a usually produces a septic form of the dis- 
chronic form of the disease in which are ease which kills in from i to 2 days. In- 
produced quite typical round, firm, ele- oculation into the lungs causes pleuritis, 
vated ulcers. usually accompanied with pneumonia. 

* Moore, What becomes of hog-cholera and swine-plague bacteria when injected subcu- 
taneouslyin small quantities in pigs. Bulletin No. 6, Bureau of Animal Industrj-, 1894, p. loi. 

The results of inoculation experiments with these bacteria 
are conclusive in establishing their causal relations to their 
respective diseases. In explaining the differences in results 
reported by different investigators the method, age, and kind 
of culture and the degree of virulence of the bacteria used, to- 
gether with the age and condition of the swine inoculated, must 
be taken into consideration. 

Several varieties of the hog-cholera bacillus have been 
recognized. As early as 1890 Smith "^ called attention to a 
variety of this organism which was more saprophytic in its 
tendencies than the form usually encountered. In 1894 he 
described seven varieties f of the hog-cholera bacillus which 
had been isolated from swine. These varieties differ either 
morphologically, in the character of their growth on ordinary 
media, in the quantity of gas produced in glucose bouillon or 
in their pathogenesis for rabbits. In addition to these, Smith 
places the bacillus found by him in aborting mares, J Bacilhcs 
enteritidis of Gaertner and Bacillus typhi murium of Loeffler 
in this group. 

*New York Medical Journal, Nov. i, 1890, p. 485. 

t These are designated as B. cholera; sms a,i3,Y,6,£,^,ri. The hog-cholera group of 
bacteria. Bulletin No. 6, Bureau of Animal Industry, 1894. 
J Bulletin No. 3, Bureau of Animal Industry, 1893. 



14 VERANUS A. MOORE, B.S., M.D. 

Through the kindness of Dr. D. E. Sahnon, I received, about 
two years ago, from Prof. Mereshkowsky,"^' of St. Petersburg, a 
culture of the bacillus which he found to produce a fatal disease 
in ground squirrels. A careful study of this organism shows 
that it belongs to the hog-cholera group, and at present I am 
studying a culture of the hog-cholera bacillus which appears to 
differ slightly from all those heretofore mentioned. Without 
entering into a discussion of the varieties of this species, suffice 
it to say that B. cholcrcc sitis a^ as described by Smith, stands, by 
virtue of the priority of its discovery, as the type. There are 
closely related to this a considerable number of important bac- 
teria, some of which have been described under quite different 
names. Although some of them have been found to approach in 
their biochemic properties B. coli coinmunis the bacillus of hog 
cholera stands as a clearly defined and distinct species of patho- 
genic bacteria. 

The bacillus of swine plague and its varieties have not been so 
systematically classified. It is of interest to note, however, that 
the bacilli of rabbit septicaemia, fowl cholera and of certain 
diseases of cattle are thought to be identical with it. They 
have not been differentiated in their morphology or cultures. 
In grouping these bacteria the fact should be recognized that 
experimentally these bacteria are not interchangeable in their 
pathogenesis except for the rabbit. .Thus an epizootic form of 
fowl cholera has not been produced with the swine plague 
or rabbit septicaemia bacilli. Further, it has been shown t 
that in the upper air passages of healthy swine, cattle, horses, 
cats and dogs there are bacteria not distinguishable in their 
cultural characters and their effect upon rabbits from the swine- 



* Centralblatt fiir Hakteriologie und Parasitenkunde, X\'II. (1895.) S. 742. 

f Smith. Special report on swine plague, 1891, p. 109. 

Moore. Appendix special report on swine plague, 1891, also Bulletin No. 3, Bu- 
reau of Animal Industry, U. S. Department of Agriculture, 1893, p. 38 

Fiocca. Centralbl. f. Bakteriol. u. Parasitenk. Bd. XL, S. 406, 

The investigations thus far made show these bacteria to be present in 48 per cent, 
of healthy swine, 80 per cent, of cattle, 50 per cent, of sheep. 16 per cent, of horses, 
90 per cent, of cats, and 30 per cent, of dogs. 



INFECTIOUS SWINE DISEASES IN THE UNITED STATES. 15 

plague bacillus. The presence of this organism in the trachea 
of healthy pigs has been suggested as the cause of sporadic cases 
of swine plague and it may explain the frequent association of 
swine plague with hog cholera. What the conditions are by 
which these bacteria are enabled to produce disease in their 
host have not been clearly pointed out. The pathogenic organ- 
ism associated wnth the lesions in certain forms of broncho- 
pneumonia in cattle differs very slightly from this. In human 
pathology we find a striking resemblance in Micrococcus lanceo- 
latiis * to the swine-plague bacillus. While there are differ- 
ences between the behavior of this organism and the swine- 
plague bacillus, its manifold and varied pathogenic possibilities 
and its distribution in normal human saliva are worthy of notice 
in this connection. 

If we take the rabbit as the animal on which to test the 
pathogenesis of the bacteria belonging to the swine-plague group 
we find that those from different sources are very similar. In 
nature, the bacilli of swine plague, rabbit septicaemia, fowl 
cholera, and those located in the normal upper air passages of 
the various species of animals mentioned exist possessed of 
marked variation in virulence, that is, those which will kill a 
rabbit when inoculated subcutaneously with pure culture in 
from 1 6 to 24 hours to those which require from 3 to 10 days 
to destroy life. With the variations in the length of time we 
have corresponding differences in- the lesions. Thus the viru- 
lent forms produce septicaemia while the attenuated varieties 
excite a severe purulent infiltration about the place of inocula- 
tion and exudates on one or more of the serous membranes. 
Conversely, it has been shown that rabbits possessed of a cer- 
tain amount of natural or artificially produced resistance will, 
when inoculated with a virulent culture, die after the same 
period of time and with lesions similar to those produced by 
the attenuated virus in the susceptible rabbit, or, if the resist- 
ance approaches in degree to immunity the lesions may be re- 
stricted to single or multiple abscesses which develop slowly in 

* Welch. Bulletin Johns Hopkins Hospital, IH., 1892, p. 125. 



]G VERANUS A. MOORE, B.S., M.D. 



various parts of the body. In hog cholera the course of the dis- 
ease may also be changed. In rabbits the lesions become local- 
ized in the digestive tract, and in guinea-pigs there is a forma- 
tion of nodules, usually beneath the peritoneum, resembling 
somewhat closely in appearance miliary tubercles. This rela- 
tion between the degrees of virulence of the bacteria on the one 
hand and the relative resistance of the animal body on the other 

has been expressed * by the simple formula d=: — in which d = 

the t}'pe of the disease, v= the virulence of the bacteria, and 
r== the resistance or degree of immunity of the animal used. 
By changing either virulence or resistance the type is changed. 
A careful study of the details of the methods by which the 
course of these diseases may be modified shows that there is a 
marked difference between hog cholera and swine plague in the 
ease with which they are diverted from their more usual mani- 
festations. Again, when they are studied in their most varied 
and extreme modifications we find that they differ quite as much 
as do the lesions produced by the virulent bacteria in suscepti- 
ble animals. In both affections the modified forms tend to the 
production of a type of disease simulating that in the larger, 
more resistant species of animals, such as swine. 

Another, and I believe important differential feature, is found 
in the behavior of experimental animals to immunizing treat- 
ment. With hog cholera, rabbits have not been immunized 
excepting with attenuated living cultures, and then with much 
difficulty. On the other hand, guinea-pigs are immunized by 
means of injections of sterilized cultures, sterilized blood of 
affected animals or the serum from immune animals. With 
swine plague, both rabbits and guinea-pigs can be made resistant 
to the strong virus by these methods. The very marked differ- 
ence in the effect on rabbits of the immunizing agents of the 
two diseases is noteworthy. Again and still more significant is 
the fact that guinea-pigs made immune to hog cholera offer no 
resistance to virulent swine-plague bacteria and z'/ce versa. 

* Smith and Moore, Bulletin No. 6, Bureau of Animal Industry, 1894, p. 89. 



INFECTIOUS SWINE DISEASES IN THE UNITED STATES. 17 



If time permitted it would be interesting to analyse the 
arguments which have been advanced to prove the identity of 
these affections. It would be equally instructive to discuss the 
various experiences in reference to certain properties of these 
bacteria, such for example, as the formation of indol, their re- 
action to the Widal serum test, and their toxins and antitoxins. 
These, however, are still in the experimental stage. It should 
be stated, that while it may be possible, under certain restricted 
conditions, to point out more similarities than differences, I 
have failed in my task if I have not shown that from first to 
last these diseases are different. When their investigation is 
extended by any of the methods of modern bacteriological or 
pathological research we are impressed with their striking dis- 
similarities, rather than with their exceptional resemblances. 
Thus, in the study of their morbid anatomy, the morphology 
and biochemic properties of their specific organisms, or in the 
mysterious problems of artificial immunity and resistance, they 
differ the one from the other. Finally, as I understand them, 
the diseases known in America as hog cholera and swine plague 
are separate and independent affectious, and each should have an 
unchallenged place in the annals of comparative medicine and 
pathology. 



[Reprinted from the American Veterinary Review, June, 1898.] 



SUPPURATIVE CELLULITIS IN THE LMBS OF CAT- 
TLE DUE TO STREPTOCOCCUS INFECTION. 

By Veranus a. Moore, M. D. 

Professoi- of Comparative PalJiology and Bacteriology, Nexo York State Veterinary 
College, Cornell University, Ithaca, N. V. 

In August, 1897, my attention was called to an interesting 
disease affecting the feet and lower limbs of cattle in certain 
parts of Herkimer County. The affection had received the local 
designation of " foot rot," and, on account of its apparent con- 
tagiousness, it was viewed with much apprehension by the cat- 
tle owners of that vicinity. It was found, however, that it had 
not spread over a very large territory, but that several dairy 
herds had suffered quite severely. Unfortunately, it was not 
reported to us until the height of the trouble had passed, so that 
this article is based upon the examination of a few animals suf- 
fering from the naturally-contracted disease and upon the cases 
experimentally produced. 

The manifestations of the disease were, within certain limits, 
uniform in all of the affected animals. Usually but one foot or 
leg was attacked, although there were numerous exceptions. 
The first symptom noticed was a swelling, which usually ap- 
peared in the lower part of the leg, most often in the pastern. 
In some animals it was said that the swelling was restricted to 
a small area, but often it extended up the leg to and even above 
the knee or the hock joint. There was evidence of pain and 
the animal became very lame. As the inflammatory process 
continued, the subcutaneous tissue became indurated, the skin 
thick and dry and eventually it would crack, usually, but not 
always, below the dew claws, and a thick creamy pus would be 
discharged. After discharging, the swelling subsided and the 
normal condition was rapidly restored. The extent of the 
swelling and the time necessary for the suppurative process and 
recovery varied in different animals, but as a rule from ten to 
fifteen days were required. The exceptions were largely in 
those cases where the inflammatory process extended down to 



2 VEKANUS A. MOORE. 



the coronary cushion. In these there was more or less slough- 
ing of the hoof, and it was in these cases that the disease ap- 
peared in its most serious form. So far as I learned all of the 
animals eventually recovered. A personal examination was 
made of five cases, which were in two herds on adjoining farms. 

Case iVo. i. A cow, 7 to 8 years old. The trouble was in the right 
hind foot. She had recovered from a severe attack in the right fore foot. 
There was still some swelling in the hind leg and the skin and subcu- 
taneous tissue above the heel were much thickened. There were two 
cracks below the dew claws, from which, the owner of the animal said, 
there had been a profuse discharge. At this time pus could not be ob- 
tained. Several small pieces of the infiltrated tissue were secured. 
From some of these agar tubes were inoculated at the time and the 
others were placed in sterile tubes and brought to the laborator}' for fur- 
ther examination. 

Case No. 2. This was in a cow, about six j^ears old, in the same dairy. 
The left fore leg was just beginning to swell. There was evidence of 
pain and the skin from the hoof to the knee was sensitive to the touch. 
The temperature was normal, but there was indifference to food. This 
case was treated local 1}^ by Dr. Law, with recovery without suppuration. 

Case No. 3. (Cases 3 to 5 were in the second herd.) This was in a 
cow, seven years old. The right hind leg was affected. The disease had 
already run about three weeks and for several days the animal had been 
under the care of a veterinarian. The cellulitis had extended up the 
leg to and above the hock joint and down to and over the coronary 
cushion. The hoof covering the heel had cracked and part of it had been 
removed. There was a large subcutaneous abscess above the heel, which 
was discharging through an opening or crack in the hoof near the mid- 
dle of the bottom of the foot. It was stated that at first the pus was 
thick and of a cream color, but at this time it was thin and of a dirty 
brown tint. By means of pressure a considerable quantit}^ of it was 
forced out, from which tubes of agar were inoculated and a few cubic 
centimeters placed in a sterile tube and brought to the laborator3\ 

Case No. 4. This was in a two-year-old heifer. The left hind foot 
was attacked. The leg was slightly swollen. There was distinct fluc- 
tuation over an area about 3 cm. in diameter, on the front of the foot and 
jUvSt above the hoof. The animal seemed to be well otherwise. Tem- 
perature normal and appetite good. The hair was clipped, the foot care- 
full}' washed and disinfected and the abscess opened. It contained about 
5 c.c. of a thick creamy looking pus. Several tubes of agar were in- 
oculated from this and the balance placed in sterile tubes for further 
examination. 



SUPPURATIVE CELLULITIS DUE TO STREPTOCOCCUS INFECTION. 3 

Case No. 5. This was in a two-3'ear-old heifer. The lelt hind foot 
had been affected, but at this time it had discharged, the swelling had 
subsided, and the abscess was practically healed. 

The disease in Cases Nos. 3 and 4 seemed to resemble Pan- 
aritiimi,'^ the essential difference being- in the extent of the in- 
flammatory process. Until the specific canse of that affection 
is more definitely determined, and the extent of the lesions in- 
cluded within the possibilities of its etiological factor more 
clearly defined, the question of its identity or non-identity 
with the local infections here described cannot be answered. 
In both the disease seems to be due to local causes. 

Bacte7'ioIogical Examination. — As already stated, several 
agar cultures were made at the time of the examinations from 
the pus or indurated tissue from three of the cases. On the fol- 
lowing day bouillon and agar tubes were inoculated and gelatin 
and agar plate cultures were made. In addition to these several 
cultures were made on special media from the material obtained 
in sterile tubes. Without entering into wearisome details, the 
results of these cultivations from the different animals may be 
summarized as follows : 

From Case No. i. — A streptococcus and an undetermined 
micrococcus and bacillus. 

From Case No. 3. — A streptococcus and several (about six) 
forms of chromogenic micrococci and bacilli. (The foot in this 
case had been wrapped for several days in oakum wet wath some 
disinfectant.) 

From Case No. 4. — A streptococcus which appeared in pure 
culture in most of the tubes. In three tubes bacillns coh 
communis was also present. 

In the plate cultures in agar made from the material from 
cases Nos. i and 4 colonies of the streptococcus predominated. 
In those prepared from case No. 3 colonies of chromogenic mi- 
crococci were more numerous. 

The culture of the colon bacillus was carefully studied in 
both its cultural characters and its effect upon animals, but it 
did not reveal any properties uncommon to that species. This, 

* Moller. Speciellen Chirurgie, S. 84Q. 



VERANUS A. MOORE. 



together with the fact that it appeared in the cultures from 
but one case, suggests that its presence was accidental and that 
it did not stand in any etiological relation to the inflammatory 
process. With the exception of the streptococcus, all of the 
other bacteria which appeared in the culture were common sapro- 
phytes which presumably had found their way into the open sores. 



0«O 



P^n 



/ I 



^•<»' 





c 
c 

.0 



^1i 



e ' 
e 






u 



^••/^ 



)« 



e 
e 
e 

c 



e 




.\ 












^S. 



V 




Description of Plate. 

Fig. I. A drawing of streptococci made from a cover-glass prepara- 
tion from a fresh bouillon culture stained with alkaline methylene blue. 
Magnified about 1500 diameters. 

Fig. 2. A drawing from a cover-glass preparation from the liver of 
a rabbit dead from inoculation with the streptococcus stained with 
alkaline methj-lene blue. Magnified about 1000 diameters. 



SUPPURATIVE CELLULITIS DUE TO STREPTOCOCCUS INFECTION, 



Fig. 3. A drawing from a section of the liver of a rabbit dead from 
the inoculation with the streptococcus. (Same rabbit from which draw- 
ing Fig. 2 was made.) Sections cut by the paraffin method and stained 
with carbol fuchsin. It shows the blood spaces to contain a large num- 
ber of streptococci. Magnified about 500 diameters. 

The microscopic examination of cover-glass preparations 
from the pus taken from case No. 4 showed a streptococcus in 
short and long chains. In those made from the material from 
cases Nos. i and 3 there were in addition to the strej^tococcus 
several other forms of bacteria. The infiltrated subcutaneous 
tissue from case No. i was found to consist of round cell infil- 
tration. The fresh preparations of the pus from the other 
cases (Nos. 3 and 4) revealed nothing unusual for purulent 
material. 

Inoculation into Cattle. — In order to determine the infectious 
nature of the trouble, two cows were inoculated with the ma- 
terial obtained from cases Nos. 3 and 4. A small portion of 
the pus from each specimen was diluted in sterile bouillon and 
about 2 c.c. of the suspension injected subcutaneously just above 
the hoof in the left fore foot in each case. Swelling was 
noticed on the third day. It gradually extended up the leg to 
the knee joint. There was much tenderness and evidence of 
pain. The subcutis became indtirated in the lower part of the 
leg and on the loth and 12th days suppuration was evident. 
The abscesses were not opened, but a few days later they broke 
just under the dew-claws, near the place of inoculation, and dis- 
charged a considerable quantity of cream-colored pus, after 
which complete recovery soon followed. The streptococcus 
was obtained in pure culture from each of these cases. 

A third cow was inoculated with a pure bouillon culture 24 
hours old of the streptococcus obtained from case No. 4. The 
inoculation was made by scraping the skin on the right fore foot 
just above the hoof, and after removing the epidermis the cul- 
ture was rubbed on the raw surface. Swelling began in three 
days and the symptoms already described followed in regular 
order. A subcutaneous abscess formed and on the 14th day 
it discharged. The streptococcus was obtained in pure cultures 
from the freshly discharged abscess. Recovery rapidly followed. 



VERANUS A. MOORE. 



A COW was inoculated in the tail with a pure culture of the 
streptococcus with negative results. 

The Streptococcus. — The cultures of streptococcus isolated 
from the different animals (cases Nos. i, 3 and 4) were care- 
fully compared in parallel cultures and found, so far as this 
method enabled one to determine, to be identical. The organ- 
ism was a true streptococcus. Morphologically it grew in long 
chains in bouillon and agar. It stained readily with aniline 
dyes, but it did not retain all of its color when treated after 
Gram's method. Each coccus or segment seemed to be dis- 
tinct. Many of them gave a decided polar stain, although this was 
not uniformly the case. In sections of the liver of inoculated rab- 
bits it appeared in the blood spaces in large numbers and in long 
chains, but in cover-glass preparations they seemed to be quite 
broken up into shorter chains, diplococci and single micrococci. 

In bouillon it grew in clumps or grayish masses, wdiich set- 
tled to the bottom or sides of the tube if they were inclined. 
After several generations a more uniform cloudiness was im- 
parted to the bouillon. Alilk was not changed in appearance. 

On agar the isolated colonies were about 1.5 mm. in diameter 
with a convex brownish centre surrounded by a thin spreading 
growth. It did not grow on potato and very feebly on gelatin. 
In alkaline bouillon containing i per cent, of the sugars ordi- 
narily used (dextrose, saccharose and lactose) the reaction be- 
came strongly acid, but gas w^as not formed.* The streptococci 
were soon destroyed in the acids formed in these cultures. In 
the fermentation tube the growth was quite vigorous in the 
open bulb, but exceedingly feeble in the closed branch. 

This organism was very sensitive to the action of disinfect- 
ants and it possessed a low thermal death point, an exposure to 
moist heat at a temperature of 55° C. for 5 minutes destroyed it. 
(These tests were not repeated.) 

In rabbits it produced a rapidly fatal septicaemia, destroying 
life in from 36 to 48 hours. Guinea-pigs were not affected un- 

* In this respect it conforms with the action of all the streptococci with which I am 
familiar. This power of the streptococci to break up the sugars forming acids without 
gas seems to be of value in diflferentiating doubtful streptococci from certain micrococci 
which often appear in short or longer chains. 



SUPPURATIVE CELLULITIS DUE TO STREPTOCOCCUS INFECTION. 7 

less large doses were injected into the peritoneal cavity. Unfor- 
tunately, this streptococcus stopped growing very suddenly be- 
fore I had extended its study sufficiently to positively identify 
it, and before the first results with disinfectants and the ther- 
mal death point had been verified. It agrees very closely with 
the description of streptococcits pyogenes bovis Lttcet * with 
the exception that it is more virulent for experimental animals. 
This, however, cannot be considered of very much importance. 
Further, I have not been able to find distinctive characters or 
properties to differentiate it from streptococcits pyogenes. Addi- 
tional investigations will be necessary to show that the strepto- 
cocci producing suppuration in cattle and in man are separated 
by specific or veriatal differences. 

Source of Infection. — Although this disease appeared to be 
of much importance in its beginning its early disappearance 
quieted the fear that the locality was invaded with a " conta- 
gious foot rot " and attention was directed to an inquiry into 
the source and manner of infection. Concerning this positive 
information was not secured. However, a few important con- 
ditions affecting the immediate environment of the animals were 
found to have been so closely associated with the trouble that 
they are quite suggestive. The cattle in the herds where 
the disease appeared were driven a considerable distance morn- 
ing and evening through paths which were very muddy. As 
would be expected, the mud was heavily laden with fecal and 
decomposing vegetable matter. It was thickly sprinkled with 
stone of a flat, sharp, angular variety. It is presumable that 
the animals in wading through these places scratched their feet 
or legs slightly but enough to cause the infection of the organ- 
ism which it is assumed was in the top soil. It was a note- 
worthy observation that the disease begun w4th a " rainy spell," 
and consequently muddy paths and yards, and disappeared after 
the mud dried up. Previous investigationsf have shown that deli- 
cate streptococci are sometimes present in the soil. The numer- 
ous recorded observations on this group of bacteria show that 

* Annales de L'Institut Pasteur, VII (1893), p. 324. 

t Bulletins No. 3 Bureau of Animal Industry, U. S. Department of Agriculture, 1893. 



VERANUS A. MOOKR. 



Streptococci are not only widely distribnted in natnre, bnt also 
that they are frequently associated apparently as the etiological 
factor in various morbid processes. Their presence in inflam- 
matory lesions leading to suppuration is quite noticeable. 

The number of bacteria which have been found associated 
with suppuration in the bovine species is already quite large, but 
as yet streptococci seem to be the organisms most frequently 
encountered. Lucet (1. c.) has reported 52 cases of abscess in 
cattle which were examined bacteriologically. A list of the or- 
ganisms isolated from these cases is appended. 

Streptococcus pyogenes bovis in 9 cases. 

Staphylococcus pyogenes bovis in 2 cases. 

Bacillus pyogenes bovis in 6 cases. 

Bacillus liqiiefaciens pyogenes bovis in 4 cases. 

Bacillus crassus pyogenes bovis in i case. 

Streptococcus and staphylococcus in 3 cases. 

Streptococcus and B. pyogenes in 4 cases. 

Streptococcus and B. crassus in 2 cases. 

Streptococcus, staphylococcus and B. crassus. ... in i case. 

Bacillus pyogenes and bacillus crassus in i case. 

Bacillus pyogenes and bacillus liquefaciens in 2 cases. 

One or the other of the above mentioned organisms 

with an undetermined species in 14 cases. 

with staph3'lococcus pyogenes albus of man . . in i case. 

with staphylococcus pyogenes aureus of man. . in 2 cases. 
It seems from the present knowledge concerning the causes 
of suppuration in cattle that the importance of streptococci can 
not be questioned. This is of interest, as cattle are not espe- 
cially susceptible to bacterial infection nor are the streptococci 
the most hardy of pyogenic organisms. It remains for future 
investigations to determine whether the various streptococci 
found in these lesions belong to a single species and if so to find 
in what respects it differs from strcptococciis pyogenes. Unfor- 
tunateh-, Lucet does not point out the distinguishing features 
which led him to separate the pyogenic organisms found in cat- 
tle from those which had already been described from similar 
lesions in other animals and in man. 



[Koprintod fmm the.Ioi'KNAL of Applikd Micros- 
coi'Y, Vol. I., No. (i.] 

Thermo-regulated Waterbaths for 
the Bacteriological Laboratory. 

There is, perhaps, a no more useful 
piece of apparatus in a general bacteri- 
ological laboratory than a suitable 
thermo-regulated water bath. The uses 
to which it may be advantageously put 
are so numerous that after the habit of 
using it is established it soon becomes 
almost indispensable. Wiesnegg antici- 
pated its value and placed upon the 
market his bain-marie which has met 
with unquestioned favor. However, its 
usefulness, on account of its form and 
size, is somewhat restricted. In order 
to extend the utility of the principle 
involved in this apparatus, I have had, 
by way of experiment, two water baths 
or tanks constructed and permanently 
fitted with thermostats and thermom- 
eters. They have been in use for nearly 
a year and have proven to be so satisfac- 
tory that a brief note concerning them 
may be of general interest. Their shape 
or size should not be taken into serious 
consideration, for they are flexible 
features which can easily be adapted to 
individual needs or requirements. The 
emphasis should be placed rather on the 
assistance they render in the saving of 
time and in the securing of uniform 
results. In laboratories where instruc- 
tion is given such assistance is much 
appreciated by both students and 
instructors. 




(60-65° C.) temperature for making cul- 
ture media. It can also be used for a 
variety of other purposes, such, for 
example, as sterilizing liquid blood 
serum or by a class of laboratory stu- 
dents in determining the approximate 
thermal death points of different bac- 
teria. It consists of a rectangular copper 
tank 45x50x25 centimeters. It is divided 




The larger water bath (Fig. 1) to which 
a therm.ostat was connected is of special 
value in macerating meat at a high 



Fiff. 2. 

into two apartments, each of which has 
a separate cover and perforated false 
bottom. The partition consists simply 
of a top crosspiece which is about four 
centimeters wide. Near its center is a 
round opening two centimeters in diam- 
eter for a thermometer, which is protect- 
ed by a perforated copper tube extending 
to and soldered to the bottom of the 
tank. Near the end of the crosspiece, or 
close to the side of the tank, there is a 
second and similar opening and shield 
for a thermostat. There is a faucet for 
drawing off the water. The tank stands 
on an iron quadruped. For heating it 
has been found desirable to use two 
burners, one under the middle of each 
side or apartment, the burners being 
connected by means of a T or Y tube to 
the gas tube leading from the regulator. 
The smaller water bath (Fig. 2) was 
made for the use of individual (research) 
students. It is cylindrical in form. 



twenty-five centimeters high and of 
about the same diameter. On one side 
there is a semicircular projection form- 
ing a chamber for the thermostat. This 
is separated from the main tank by 
means of several narrow strips of copper 
soldered at each side. The tank is 
provided, like the larger one, with a 
perforated false bottom. The cover has 
an opening for a thermometer. An 
apparatus of this size makes an admira- 
ble milk pasteurizer. It is not expensive 
and when properly set up requites 
comparatively little time to operate it. 

The Friedberg burner has been found 
to be very satisfactory for these baths, 



as they possess to an unusual degree, 
when properly adjusted, the desirable 
quality of maintaining a very small 
flame without striking back. The Roux 
thermostat seems to be the best regu- 
lator for this particular purpose. It 
is constructed out of metal and conse- 
quently it is not easily broken. It is 
readily adjusted and quite as sensitive 
as the ordinary spirit or mercury 
thermo-regulators. 

VERA^'us A. Moore. 

New York State Veterinary College, 
Cornell University, Ithaca, N. Y. 



A Report Concerning the Nature of Infectious 

Swine Diseases in the State of New York, 

with Practical Suggestions for their 

Prevention and Treatment. 



By Veraxus A. Moore, B. S., M. D., 

ProfesFor of comparative Pathology and Bacteriology, New York State Veterinary College, 
Cornell University, Ithaca, N. Y. 



In tihe State of New York, as elsewhere in this country, the 
infectious swine diseases whicJi are of the greatest economic 
importance are hog cholera and swine plague. A third infectious 
disease peculiar to this species known as STsine erysipelas in Eng- 
land, rouget in France and Rothlauf in Germany has not become 
prevalent in this country, although its probable appearance in 
one of the western States has been announced. 

In addition to the above, swine are subject to several disea;ses 
common to other animals and to man. OutbrealvS of anthrax 
occasionally occur in which many animals perish. Tuberculosis 
is not infrequently found in pigs fed upon the milk or offal of 
tuberculous cattle. Hogs are sometimes bitten by rabid dogs and 
die of rabies. There are also several animal parasites which infest 
swine; some of these produce serious losses, while others, like 
trichinae render their hosts dangerous for human consumption. 
It has further been observed that swine are susceptible to small- 
pox and diphtheria but cases of these are of very rare occurrence. 
Many hogs die from the effect of improper care but these fatali- 
ties are generally heralded as being due to some one or other od 
the infectious or contagious diseases. These various affections 



are of much importance and every precaution should be taken 
to prevent them, and all known means employed to eradicate 
them, if they should appear. The scope of this report, however, 
will not permit of their further discussion and we pass at once 
to the consideration of the two diseases first mentioned and to 
those disorders brought about by unsanitary surroundings and 
unwholesome food. 

Although hog cholera and swine plague have been carefully 
described in the official reports of the Bureau of Animal Industry, 
United States Department of Agnculture, and the distinctive 
characters of each have repeatedly been pointed out in various 
other publications, the investigation of the last year has shown 
that there are many farmers who are not sufficiently familiar 
with the nature of these maladies to properly guard their herds 
against them. As swine diseases are among those of the highest 
economic importance, as measured by the market value of the 
animals they destroy, It is fitting that they should again receive 
special attention. For the convenience of the reader, it has 
seemed best to divide the subject matter of this report into four 
parts as follows: 

I. A somewhat popular discussion of hog cholera and swine 
plague, based upon the facts taken largely from descriptions 
already published and which are familiar to investigators in this 
line. This part is intended primarily for those who are not 
already familiar with the nature of these diseases. 

II. A test of the swine plague " antitoxin " or serum prepared 
by the United States Bureau of Animal Industry for the treat- 
ment of swine plague. 

III. A report of the investigations which have been made 
during the past year into the nature of the outbreaks of infectious 
diseases among swine in this State. 

IV. A description of the bacilli of hog cholera and swine plague 
based upon the study of these organisms obtained from the epi- 
zootics in this State. 



I. 

HOG CHOLERA. 

Historical sketch. — The ea.rlies.t outbreak in this country of 
which we have knowledge of a disease supposed to be hog cholera 
occurred in the State of Ohio in 1833. It is presumed that it was 
broug^ht from Europe with some of the animals imported from 
thei*e to improve the American breed of swine. After being in- 
troduced, it spread at first slowly, but later with increasing 
rapidity along the lines of commerce, until it has invaded every 
part of this county where swine raising has become an industry. 
It has been shown by investigators in England, on the continent 
of Europe, and in the United States Bureau of Animal Industry, 
that the swine fever of Great Britain and the swine pest of Den- 
mark, are identical with American hog cholera. 

In 1875, Prof. James Law* published a paper on his investiga- 
tions of hog cholera lOr " intestinal fever in swine," in which we 
find the lesions carefully described and the following list of names 
under which the disease was then known, viz.: typhoid fever, 
enteric fever, typhus carbuncular fever, carbuncular gastro-enteri- 
tis, carbuncular typhus, pig distemper, blue sickness, blue disease, 
purples, red soldier, anthrax fever, scarlatina, measles, diphtheria 
and erysipelas. Some of these names are still used. Recently my 
attention was called to a popular work on swine diseases in which 
many of these terms, are employed. They are of popular origin 
and seem to refer to some one or more of the observed symptons. 
The fact should not be, overlooked that formerly all of the appar- 
ently infectious diseases of swine were generally thought to be 
identical. Unfortunately, in many places, this opinion seems to 
be still entertained. 

In 188.5, the bacillus, or causal agent, of this disease was dis- 
covered and described by the workers in the United States Bureau 
of Animal Industry.f 

This important discovery swept away many iof the existing 
theories concerning the nature of hog cholera. It established tJie 



* Report of the United States Commis-ioner of Agriculture, 1875. 

t Annual report of the Bureau of Animal Industry, United States Department of 
Agriculture, 1885. Special report on hog cholera, ibid. 1889. Bulletin No. 6, ibid. 1894. 



all important fact that it was a definite disease produced by a dis- 
tinct species of bacteria. Subsciiucnl investiji^ations have shown 
that the spread of this disease and likewise its .prevention are 
gDverned almost entirely b}' the conditions or agencies which favor 
or check the spread of this particular species of bacteria. It has 
been clearly established, therefore, that hog cholera is an infec- 
tious disease. Its specific organism is easily carried from an in- 
fected to a non-infected locality rendering the spread of this 
malady exceedingly easy, but still we believe largely within the 
power of man to control. 

^i/nij)t())iis. — There seems to be a popular, traditional belief that 
the nature of ,a disease should be determined by the< objective 
symptoms. Such a belief is nearly fultilled in case of certain af- 
fections but years of investigation have shown that with the one 
in question, it is not wholly true. This is unfortunate, but the 
best informed writers on the subject are agreed that hog cholera 
can not, with rare exceptions, be positively diagnosed by the symp- 
toms. Animals sutlering from various intestimil troubles fre- 
quently exhibit fiymptoms which very closely resemble those of 
hog cholera. 

There are two recognizable forms of this disease, namely, the 
acute and the chronic or mild form. In the acute disease, the ani- 
mals die very suddenly after a few hours or at most a few days, 
sickness. In the other form the disease runs a longer course. 
There is usually a rise in the temperature of from 1 to 3° F. 

The sick animals lact dumpish, spiritless, and lie quietly in a 
corner or huddle together usually concealing the head in the litter. 
They refuse to move when disturbed and are more or less oblivious 
to their sullcriiig. The appetite varies. In acute cases the ani- 
mals may eat (piite heartily up to) within a few hours before death. 
In more chronic forujs the\' eat fairly well until the end. There 
may or mayiuot be diarrhoea. Fre(|uently the bowels are costive. 
It is (piite common in these cases to have an active diarrhoea dur- 
ing- ilie hisl few days. The color of the discharuc depends largely 
on the food. X'omiting rarely occurs. Tlu^ changes in the respira- 
tion and ilie pulse are ditticult to determine. There is rarelv any 



cough. Frequently there isiconsiderable 'reddening 'of the skin on 
the nose, ears, abdomen and on the inside of the thighs and 
pubic region. The redness is diffused and more intense as death 
approaches, and frequently apparent in the dead animal. In some 
cases there is a discharge from the eyes. In the chronic form the 
animal becomes emaciated. These symptoms vary to such an 
extent that it is sometimes necessary to make a post-mortem 
examination, and even then the diagnosis must often be delayed 
until the results of the bacteriological examination are obtained. 
Morhkl anatomy, or the appearance of the diseased organs. — Hog 
cholera is a disease of the intestinal tract, although the lungs 
may occasionally contain areas of lobular or broncho-pneumonia. 
In the acute form the lesions are of a congestive or hemorrhagic 
nature. The lungs and heart may be sprinkled with bright red- 
dish areas due to hemorrhages beneath the membrane covering 
these organs. The spleen is enlarged and the color much darker 
than normal. (See Fig. B. Plate II.) The kidneys are enlarged 
and usually their surface is of a dark color, due to the injection 
of the blood vessels. Frequently the intestines will contain 
blood clots. In some cases the hemorrhages are confined to areas 
beneath the mucous membrane of the stomach, especially in the 
fundus, but ordinarily the large. and small intestines are also 
affected. In the chronic or less severe forms, which appear to 
be more common, the lesions are quite different. The spleen 
is very much enlarged, firm and dark colored. The lymphatic 
glands are enlarged and oedematoiis or hemorrhagic. In the 
caecum and upper part of the large intestine, and frequently in 
the lo'wer portion of the small intestine, there are numerous ul'- 
cers. These are usually circular, slightly projecting masses of 
dead tissue, varying in color, but usually grayish yellow or black- 
ish, or both, in alternate rings. They are readily recognized, 
and when associated with the large blackish spleen, the disease 
is almost always hog cholera. In some cases, instead of the iso- 
lated ulcers, the entire surface of the mucous membrane will be 
necrosed (dead), giving it a grayish or yellowish appearance. 



6 

Hog cholera is usually fatal and when it ai>])('ars in a In^d a 
large percentage of the animals arc liable to be attacked unless 
rig-id jirecautions are taken to prevent its spread. What these 
precautions consist in will be discussed on a subsecjuent page. 

Although certain of the tissue changes appearing in hog cholera 
are simulated by ollu-r disorders, a careful post-mortem exami- 
nation will, in most cases, enable the diagnosis to be made unless 
the disease is masked by various modifications or complications. 
In all cases the farmer should make, or have made, a careful post- 
mortem examination of any swine which may du\ for the pur- 
pose of determining the nature of the affection. The common 
practice of allowing the dead animals to be buried without first 
ascertaining the cause of death should be discouraged. This ha» 
frequently caused the destruction of an entire herd from the dis- 
ease, when, if properly handled at the beginning, a large propor- 
tion of the animals might have been saved. 

The cause of hog cholera. — As previously stated this disease is 
due to the presence of a certain species of bacteria.* Without 
its presence, hog cholera is impossible. This organism is very 
small. It is rod shaped yet more than 15,000 of them could be 
placed end to end within the length of a single inch. They will 
live in water for several weeks and thus they are often carried 
from place to place in small streams. On account of their 
minuteness and their power to resist such natural agencies aa 
moisture and dryness together with their ability to live for 
several months in the soil, it requires the greatest care to keep 
them off from one's premises, if they are present in adjoining 
herds. It seems to be difficult for people to realize that the 
exciting and only cause of this disease is a living organism in- 
visible to the unaided eye. Let this fact be fully appreciated 
and the precautions about to be enumerated will be easily under- 
stood. 

Prevention. — As hog cholera is caused by a specific organism 
the first fact to be determined is to find the channel or means by 
which it can be carried from an infected to a non-infected herd. 

•For a full description of this organism see page 41. 



The thorough investigations which have been made in the United 
States Bureau of Animal Industry (1. c), have shed much light 
upon this subject. The observations of more recent years have 
confirmed the conclusion reached in the earlier reports of the 
Bureau. With these results and the experience of those who 
have acted upon their suggestions, we come to the consideration 
of the ways by which the virus is disseminated and the methods 
necessary for checking its spread, with an assurance of certainty 
that it can be kept away from individual herds even in the 
midst of ^^ide spread epizootics. 

1. The virus of hog cholera is frequently introduced into 
a non-infected locality by the purchase of animals, usually for 
breeding purposes, from herds in which this disease exists or 
has existed within the preceding few months. These animals are 
usually placed among the home raised swine without quarantine 
thus affording every possible facility for starting up a new out- 
break. 

How could these animals carry the disease we are often asked? 
The answer is easy. The virus could be carried in the dirt on the 
animals, or, as is most usually the case, the pigs might have been 
but recently infected and later they develop the disease. It not 
infrequently happens that these animals are suffering, when pur- 
chased, from a chronic form of the disease, to which they event- 
ually succumb. In purchasing swine, therefore, it is of the great- 
est importance that the history of the herd should show that it 
had been free from infectious diseases for at least one year. In 
addition to this, newly purchased swine should not be placed 
immediately after shipment in the pens with the home stock, 
but they should be kept in a separate enclosure until after all 
danger of the disease has passed. 

2. Swine are often shipped in crates, boxes or in open cars, in 
which hogs affected with hog cholera have previously been con- 
fined. The history of hog cholera contains may illustrations of 
this method of contracting the disease. 

3. As already stated, the bacilli of hog cholera live for a con- 
siderable time in water. On this account the specific bacteria 



8 

from outbreaks ^vhicll start at or nc^ar the source of a creek or 
small river may he cairied in the current, and infect animals 
TNhich wallow in the stream many miles below. Although the 
illustrations of this method of infection are so numerous that 
they stH^m commonplace, it is the exception to find the swine 
kept from these possibly infected streams. An extensive out- 
break occurred in the eastern part of the State of Illinois some 
years ago, which furnishes a good example of the significance of 
this neglect. Some brcMiding swine were purchased in a hog 
cholera district in the State of Nebraska. They were placed in a 
h(M'd at the very head waters of a small stream. In about two 
weeks, hog cholera broke out among them and later it appeared 
in every herd, with one exception, for several miles along the 
infected stream. The hogs in the herd which escaped were con- 
fined in a yard some distance from the infected creek, carefully 
fed and kept dry, and everybody coming from the infected farms 
were forbidden to enter. This precaution saved the animals. 
Such a measure necessitates some work and a slight expense, 
but these are not to be seriously considered w^hen by so doing 
the hogs can be mai-ketinl instead of lost. In the fall of 1895, 
I found in the State of Minnesota a few farmers who were adher- 
ing to this method and who saved their swine, while the herds 
of their neighbors were destroyed. 

4. The bacilli of hog chohMa can be carried in the dirt which 
adheres to one's shoes or to farming utensils. It not infrequently 
happens that the virus of this disease is carried from farm to 
farm on the tools taken from an infected place. It sometimes 
occurs that a farmer assists his unfortunate neighbor in drawing 
away or otherAvise disposing of the dead or sick hogs and in turn 
carries the virus on his shoes or implements to his OAvn herd. A 
very striking exami)le of this came to the writer's attention in 
181)0. A farmer in Illinois, fearing the infection of his swine from 
a stream, confined them in two fields on a hill side. One day he 
assisted a neighbor in drawing out his dead hogs and, when 
through, left Ihe stone boat which was covered with litter from 
the dead hogs, in his upp(M- yard in which about sixty fattening 



hogs nearly ready for the inai'ket wore kept. In about two weeks 
they be^an to die of ho^i: cholera. Then came heavy rains and 
about two weeks later the shoats in the lower field began to die 
of the same disease. He lost 158 of his IGO hogs. Although this 
man realized the danger of contamination from the stream, he 
failed to comprehend the fact that he could bring the virus in 
the way he did. 

In the State of Minnesota, there is being carried out a method 
of individual quarantine w^hich is w^orking to a good advantage. 
The law^ provides that each farmer may, during the prevalence 
of infectious diseases among swine in his locality, post a notice 
warning all people from coming w-ithin 50 feet of the pens or 
yards in which his hogs are kept. The violation of this request 
is punishable by a heavy fine. If the disease is present then the 
State Health authorities post a notice of warning and forbidding 
any person, save the owner or the authorized attendants, from 
going to the pens. These notices enable farmers to keep their 
herds free from exposure to the virus of the disease through dirt 
brought by themselves or employes from infected localities. 

5. The virus may be carried by buzzards, crows and other 
birds. There is no positive proof that the virus has been disse- 
minated in this way although there is much evidence to support 
such a theory, particularly in the South. Several outbreaks have 
been attributed to this method of introducing the virus. The 
hypothesis emphasizes the necessity for promptly disposing of 
the dead animals instead of leaving them as prey for scavengers. 
If they cannot be burned it is best to cover the bodies with a 
liberal amount of lime and bury them. 

Thus far we have considered the spread of the disease from 
herd to herd but it is exceedingly desirable to be able to check 
its ravages in herds which for any reason have actually become 
infected. It is obvious that this is a difficult task as all of the 
animals may have been exposed. For this reason it is often im- 
possible to save any of the individuals. It seems to be a fact 
however, that usually only a few^ animals in a herd are infected 
^t the beginning, and that the disease spreads from these. Here 



as in dealing with infectious diseases generally, the principle of 
isolation is to be observed. If one or more animals are attacked, 
they should b(* separated from the a})})arent]y well ones. The 
as yet well animals should l>e i)la((Hl in other pens, and the in- 
fected cmlosine disinfected. The well ones should receive the 
best of care including good and wholesome food, pure water, a 
little salt, and if the animals are kept in a building it should 
be well ventilated. A laxative is also indicated. Dr. D. E. 
Salmon* recommends the following treatment for both prophy- 
lactic and curative purposes. It is reported to be more effica- 
cious than any of the medicinal remedies previously tried. The 
formula for the preparation is as follows: 

Wood charcoal 1 pound 

Sulphur 1 pound 

Sodium chloride 2 pounds 

Sodiuni, carbonate 2 pounds 

Sodium hyposulphite 2 pounds 

Sodium sulphate 1 pound 

Antimony sulphide 1 pound 

Tliese ingredients should be completely pulverized and thor- 
oughly mixed. The dose of this mixture is a large tablespoonful 
for each two hundred pounds. w(Mglit of hogs to be treated, and 
it should be given only once a day.f 

If any of the animals among those supposed to be uninfected 
show symptoms of the disease, the well ones should again be re- 

• Farmers' Bulletin No. 24, United States Department of Agriculture. 

t Concerning this treatment the bulletin reads: 

" When hogs are affected with this disease they should have at least once a day- 
soft food, made by mixing bran or middlings and corn meal, or ground oats and corn, 
or crushed wheat with hot water, and stirring into this the proper quantity of the 
medicine. Hogs are fond of it; it increases their appetite, and when they once taste 
of food with which it has been mixed, they will eat it, although nothing else would 
tempt them." 

" This medicine may also be used as a preventive, and for this purpose should be 
put in the feed of the whole herd. Care should of course be taken to see that each- 
animal receives its proper share. In ca^es where it has be-en given a fair trial, it has 
apparently cured most of the animals which were rnck and stopped the progress of the 
disease in the herd. It also appears to be an excellent appetizer and stimulant of the 
processes of digestion and assimilation, and when given to unthrifty hogs it incrcasea 
the appetite and causes them to take on flesh, aiid assume a thrifty appearance." 



11 

moved to other pens. It is important that the pens should be 
kept dry. If boai'd tioors are used they should be cleaned fre- 
quently and suitable bedding provided. If floors are not 
used, dry ground should be selected and the inclosure 
should be changed ifrom time to time. There is invari- 
ably enough oi'ganic matter in the water which collects in hog 
pens to provide pabulum for the hog cholera bacteria. In other 
words the swine should be isolated and the virus of the disease 
kept from tdiem. As this disease is very similar to typhoid fever 
in man, the same general care should be exercised in warding it 
off that is employed in preventing the spread of that disease. 
The expense of the precautionary measures is comparatively 
slight, a mere trifle, compared with the loiss from the disease, 
and it can therefore well be afforded. 

If the post-mortem of the first animals to die show that the 
diagnosis of hoig cholera is correct, it is recommended by some 
that all oif the sick animals should be killed and their carcasses 
burned. Tliere is logic in this method of treatment, as the mor- 
tality of hogs attacked with this disease is exceedingly high and 
if the individuals affected survive, they rarely become thrifty. 
Their destruction removes a source of infection and increases 
the prospect of checking the spread of the disease. Although 
this method has much to commend it, especially in the outbreaks 
where the disease in neighboring herds has run a rapidly fatal 
course, care in (Separating the well from the sick will often save 
several animals. 

As the bacillus of hog cholera lives in the soil for several 
months, it is important that other swine are not brought to the 
infected place, before the virus has been destroyed. In cases 
where the sick animals are confined in pens or small inclosures, 
disinfectants may be used. Of these the foilowing solution is 
effective. It is quite corrosive and care should be taken to pro- 
tect the eyes and the hands from accidental splashing: 

Crude carbolic acid i gallon. 

Crude sulphuric acid ^ gallon. 



12 

''These two sulistaiiccs sliould Ix^ mixed in tubs or glass ves- 
fiels. Tlic suljilnnic acid is v(M_v slowly added to the carbolic 
acid. l)uriii<:: the iuixiii<;- a Iarg(^ amount of heat is developed. 
The disinfcciinu- powi^' >s hei<:;hten(^d if the amount of heat is 
kept down bv placing the tub or demijohn containing the carbolic 
acid in cold water, while the sulphui-ic acid is being added. The 
resulting mixtui-e is added to watei' in the ratio of 1 to 20. One 
gallon of mixed acid will thus furnish 20 gallons of a strong 
disinfcH-ting solution, liaving a slightly milky appearance. The 
mixture should be applied to the walls and tioors of the j)ens, 
saturating them with it. Slacked lime would be less expensive 
for yards." 

When the diseased animals have had a wide range it is best 
to allow the virus to become destroyed through natural agencies. 
It is not consideriHi safe to reoccupy the land with swine within 
a yeair after the disease disappears. The writer has been told 
of several 4']»i7.o()tics among newly purchased swine .placed in 
yards or tic^lds in which animals have but recentl}" died. 

Trcdtinnit. — Naturally one looks for a remedy when the dis- 
ease ap])<'ars. It might seem unjust that the penalty of allowing 
the virus to enti^' must be the loss of a large part of the hc^d. 
However, tliis is usually the case. Nature as we find her is not 
relenting and when this virus is introduced, there is, according 
to ])ast experience, little or no help to be obtained from drugs. 
A'aiious medicines have been tried but thus far, they have not 
]>ro\('d to Ix' eilicient. A\'itli this, as with other infectious animal 
diseases, the best treatment is to be found in their prevention. 

During .the past few years much has be<Mi said concerning 
pi*eventive inoculation and more recently the serum treatment 
has recei\-ed much attention. \>'liile there is ho]>e that an anti- 
toxin or othei- specilic may b<^ discovered, up to tlu^ }u*esent time 
these new i-enunlies have not passed beyond the exi)erimental 
stage, and one should be guarded against the purchase or use 
of any of these " siir<' cures " now on the market for hog cholera. 

The liiited Stales IJui'eau cd" Animal Industry and also the in- 
ves/tigaioi-s in seme of the State exiiei-iment stations have been 



13 

and are still uiakiug: extensive investigations in these lines, but 
as yet the desired results have not been fully attained. Farmers 
should not be hasty, therefore, in accepting these ^'new remedies" 
until they have a guarantee of their efficiency, at least in an ex- 
perimental way. Again, the investigators who are searching for 
a specific for this disease, should not be blamed if they do not 
succeed at once. It is not yet known whether sucli a discovery 
is vouchsafed unto man. Certainly great benefit has accrued 
from the investigations already made. They have told us the 
cause, and pointed out the means by which it is posisible, at least 
in a large majority of instances, to prevent the disease. It is 
highly probable that if we can have but one, a knowledge of the 
cause with the power to prevent can be made of more real value 
to the country at large than a medicinal remedy could possibly be. 
Economic importance. — The economic importance of hog cholera 
(in which are necessarily included, on account of confusion in 
diagnosis, swine plague and dietary disorders) is much greater 
than is commonly supposed. According to the official reports of 
the United States Department of Agriculture, the loss of swine 
in this country from diseases, largely hog cholera, amounted in 
1896 to 5,440,168 animals, or 12.7 per cent, of the entire number 
of hogs in the country. In 1896 the value of the swine in this 
State was estimated at |4,193,897. A loss of 12 per cent., the 
average loss for the country, would amoiunt to more than half 
a million dollars. Already this disease has many foci in the 
State, and during the last year several outbreaks have occurred. 
in which the losses in the herds affected rang'?d from 40 to 90 
per cent. Xotwithstanding this, and contrary to certain ru- 
mors, hog cholera has not become a serious pest to the farmers 
of this State. However, if the natural history of this disease is 
carefully read, the conclusion must be reached that unless care 
is taken to prevent its spread, it may in a very few years be- 
come a wide-spread and destructive plague. Certainly the grav- 
ity of the situation should cause those who are personally inter- 
ested to be cautious. If all keepers of swine would see to it 
that every reasonable precaution is taken to prevent the entrance 



14 

of the virus into their herds, and see that proper quarantine is 
enforced ajjainst all swine coming into the State from infected 
districts, hog cholera could undoubtedly soon be eliminated from 
within our boundaries. The situation is such that it is far 
more profitable to go to some trouble and expense to prevent 
the disease than to wait until it occurs and then try some sup- 
posed remedy. , 

It should be said further that the loss of the animals does not 
measure fully the cost of the disease. It frequently happens 
that the carelessness of a single man may permit the entrance 
of the disease into a locality from whence it spreads and often 
destroys the animals of those who are dependent upon the price 
of their " porkers " for the purchase of suitable clothing and 
necessary food. Such occurrences are not uncommon, and to 
prevent extreme suffering these people become temporarily pub- 
lic charges. It is a well-established fact in sanitaiy science that 
the health and prosperity of the people of a community depend 
largely upon the health of the domesticated animals in that coeqj- 
munity and upon which the inhabitants largely depend. 

SWINE PLAGUE. 

The term swine plague, like that of hog cholera, has been used 
indiscriminately to designate destructive diseases among swine. 
Swine plague, however, is primarily a disease of the lungs, al- 
though it may affect the other organs of the body. It is an in- 
fectious pneumonia. The difference between these two swine 
diseases may perhaps be made more distinct by comparing them 
to wc^ll-known Iniman diseases. Thus the swine i)lague can 
be likened to pneumonia in man, and hog cholera to typhoid 
fever. 

Swine l)lague was differentiated from hog cholera by Dr. Theo- 
bald Smith* in 1886. U}) to that time it was unknown in this 
country, although a like disease, i^chweincscuche, had been de- 
scribed in Germany. In addition to the difference in both the 
location and nature of the primary lesions, the bacteria which 



* Report of the Bureau of Animal Industry. United States Departncent of Agriculture, 
l88r,. 



15 

cause them are entirely different. (See description of bog cholera 
and swine i>h^8'ii^ bacteria on page 51.) Dr. Smith believed 
swine plague to be a distinct and independent disease, although 
it was often associated with hog cholera. In fact, he found the 
two diseases co-existing in the same outbreaks and often in the 
same animal. Other investigators, more especially Drs. Welch 
and Clements,* of Baltimore, have found them together so often 
that they were inclined to believe that swine plague was a sec- 
ondary affection. 

In 1895 the writer had an opportunity of investigating several 
outbreaks of swine disease in the State of Minnesota, where he 
found simple pneumonia, or s^ine plague, running a rapidly 
fatal course. These investigations, which cannot be entered into 
here, support the conclusion of Dr. Smith, that swine plague is an 
independent disease. During the past year it has been found in 
this State in two outbreaJ^s in which the characteristic lesions 
or the bacillus of hog cholera were not discovered. In the ex- 
amination of a dead hog the provisional diagnosis of swine plague 
may be ventured on the following appearances of the organs, 
viz.: A consolidation of a considerable part of one or both lungs, 
with the intestines, liver and spleen apparently healthy, although 
these organs are often more or less affected. If the intestines 
contain large ulcers and the spleen is very large and the glands 
of the mesentery are enlarged and oedematous the disease is very 
likely hog cholera. If all these tissue changes are found in one 
and the same animal it is presumable that both diseases are 
present. 

Sifniptoms. — It is frequently difficult to recognize symptoms 
distinctive of swine plague. The peculiarities of swine render 
it exceedingly difficult to obtain evidence on physical examina- 
tion of lung disease. Sometimes this affection runs a very rapid 
course but usually it is more protracted, lasting from a few days 
to a week or more. The affected animals eat very little, or re- 
fuse food altogether. They cough considerably esx)ecially when 
forced to run. The back is usually arched and the groins sunken. 

* Paper read before the International Veterinary Association, Chicago, 1893. 



16 

The wliitcs of tin* eyes itre r(Mldened. The skin over the* under 
surface of the body, nose and oars is freijueiitly flushed. Tlie 
cou<;li, however, is the most reliable indication we have of SAvine 
plague but in some cases of hog cholera the coexistence of bron- 
cho-pneumonia also causes the animal to cough when forced to 
move raj)idly. 

Morbid anatomy, or the appearance of the dise<ised organs. — Ldke 
hog cholera there are many known variations in the appearance 
of the internal organs of hogs which have died of swine plague. 
The characteristic lesions are, as previously statcMl, to be found 
in tlie lungs. Freijuently the abdominal viscera appear to be 
normal although a careful examination will usually revc^al slight 
changes. In the lung>s, however, the disease is obvious. The 
delicate, light pinkish appearance of the normal organ is changed. 
Tlie ventral and cephalic lobes and often a part of the principal 
lobe of one or both lungs have become solid. They are reddish, 
mottled or grayish according to the stage of the disease. The 
pleural cavity frequently contains a blood-stained or straw^-eol- 
ored liquid and the surface of the lung is sometimes covered with 
a grayish exudate which occasionally attaches the lungs to the 
wall of the cavity. In some cases there are obvious changes in 
the intestines, kidneys, spleen and liver. The extent to which 
these organs may be affected is not fully determined. In cases 
where the variations are niaiked it is impossible, even foi' experts, 
to make a diagnosis without a careful bacteriological examina- 
tion. It is believed by the writer that swine plague may ai)pear 
as a septicaemia in pigs, resembling very closely anatomically 
the acute form of hog cholera. If the disease exists in a modified 
form the assistance of a veterinarian will be necessary in making 
the diagnorsis. It is not too much to exj)ect that all those wdio 
raise swine should be able to determine whether or not the 
( hangi's charact(^nstic of the ty])ical forms of this disease 
are pi'es<'nt. An <'arly diagnosis and i»ronipt preventive measures 
will often save serious loss and hence the desirability of having 
the farmer able to take the initiative steps in preventing its 
fui'ther sjH*(^ad. 



17 

The cause of swine plague. — Dr. Theobald Smith* discovered in 
1886 that this disease was due to a small nou-motile bacillus. 
It differs radically in both its morphology and cultural characters 
from the bacillus of hog cholera. Although there has been con- 
siderable confusion concerning these two species, it is safe to 
say, as will be seen from their description on page 47, that they 
can be easily distinguished the one from the other. Dr. Smith 
also found that an organism closely related to, if not identical 
with, the bacillus of swine plague exists in the upper air passages 
of a large percentage of healthy swine. It is interesting to know 
thart similar bacteria live in the mouth and trachea of many 
cattle, cats and dogs. Surgeon-General G. M. Sternberg, as early 
as 1881, showed that in human saliva there is a bacillus which is 
supposed to be identical with that of pneumonia in nuan. 

The discovery of this bacillus in the upper air passages of 
healthy pigs is of much importance as it explains the presence 
of the bacillus in isolated or sporadic cases of pneumonia. The 
history of swine plague indicates, however, that in outbreaks 
of the disease the specific organisms are transmitted from animal 
to animal. It is still an unsettled question whether or not in 
the beginning of an epizootic, the disease starts from a sporadic 
case, that is, one which developed from the normally present 
organism under certain favorable conditions, or, from an infec- 
tion following previous exposure to the disease. An argument 
in favor of the infectiousness of the disease rests in the fact 
that the mortality in herds affected with epizootic swine plague 
is much higher than the percentage of swine which have been 
found to normally harbor the identical or closely related species 
of bacteria in their air passages. 

At present w^e must consider epizootics of swine plague 
to be due to an infection with the specific organism (the bacillus 
of swine plague), as its clinical history shows it to be an infec- 
tious disease which often becomes widespread. 

In the sporadic cases the conditions under which the animal 
was kept must be taken into account. While in a measure dis- 



• Special report on swine plague. Bureau of Animal Industry, 1891. 

2 



linct, the possible relation between the sporadic and epizootic 
forms of pneumonda appear to be close and dependent to a cer- 
tain degirtH? ujwn purely external conditions. This emphasizes 
the iinj)ortance of ke<'ping swine in the best possible sanitary 
conditions. The investigations which have been made into a few 
epizootics seem to indicate that the disease sometimes starts in 
a si>()radic case from which it spreads to the otlier animals in the 
herd. 

Prevention of latrine phif/iic. — Recent investigations in ^linnt^sota 
and Illinois show that outbreaks of swine plague are much more 
extensive than hei-etofore supposed. The present knowledge of 
this disease indicates, therefore, that the adoption of measures 
for its prevention is (piite as important as for hog cholera. In 
general the measures to be adopted and followed, and the rules 
to be observed in the prevention of epizootic swine plague are 
practically the same as those for the prevention of hog cholera. 
It Willi be seen from the comparison of the two species of bacteria 
that the bacillus of hog cholera is a more hai*dy organism than 
that of swine plague. Thus the swine-plaigue . bacillus is de- 
stroyed more rapidly by drying and will live a much shorter time 
in the soil. However, the channels through which it may gain 
access to a herd are practically the same, and every precaution 
suggested in reference to hog cholera, is applicable to swine 
plague. It is believed that the time during which a field, hog 
yard, or pen should be kept free from swine after the appearance 
of the disease can, with isafety, be shorter after swine plague 
than afti'r hog cholera. In any case several months should elapse 
before the yards or pens are reoccupied. 

Treatmejit of swine plar/iie. — A discussion of the disease would 
not be comj)lete or satisfactory to the ])ractical mind unless a 
method of treatment is prescribed. The discoveiy of an efficient 
remedy would un(]uestionably increase the i)r()si)ects and raise 
the hopes of many hog raisers. At present, quacks flood the in- 
fected districts with their '' curative wares '' without giving evi- 
dence of the virtue of their drugs. 



For a niinibei' of years investigations have been almost con- 
stantly under way in the United States Bureau of Animal In- 
dustry, for the purpose of finding some method by which this 
disease could be successfully treated when introduced into a 
herd. Drugs and medicines have been tried, preventive inocula- 
tions and injections of toxines have been made. The serum 
therapy w^hich has afforded relief in other diseases is now being 
tested with somewhat favorable results, yet we are compelled 
to say that a specific has not been demonstrated. In view 
of this unfortunate fact, it becomes necessary to apply with re- 
newed zeal our present knowledge of the nature of the malady 
and endeavor to prevent its occurrence or reappearance by keep- 
ing the animals under the best possible conditions. Prevention 
of the disease is the key to success. We hear about sterilized 
milk and testing cows for tuberculosis, not that these will cure, 
but that they will give information which can be used in such a 
way that it will minimize the further spread of the disease. So 
with swine plague. Let ever}- farmer quarantine his swine 
against all possible sources of infection; keep his animals clean, 
and supply them with plenty of good food and w^ater and there 
is reason to believe that he will have little or no occasion to use 
medicinal remedies. 

DIETARY AND FILTH DISORDERS. 

It is the experience of those who are engaged in the investiga- 
tion of infectious diseases to find destructive outbreaks of a pecu- 
liar nature among swine kept in filthy pens and yards and also 
among those fed upon garbage collected in our villages and small 
cities. A study of the animals which die in these outbreaks 
shows frequently that the disease is not hog cholera or swine 
plague, as reported, for neither the changes in the tissue or the 
results of the bacteriological examination confirm such a diag 
nosis. It has already been pointed out that in order to have 
these infectious diseases, the specific bacteria which produce them 
must be present, and usually they can be easily detected. The 
causes of death wiiich occur among swine kept under these un- 
sanitary conditions are spoken of as dietary or filthy disorders. 



20 

Although the cause of these deaths is usually attributed to hog- 
cholera, the tYp)ical character of the lesions are enough to show 
the error in this diagnosis. 

From the fact that as vet the specific cause of death among 
these garbage or swill fed hogs has not been definitely pointed 
out, the opinion is commonly entertained by the people who feed 
such material and who frcMjuently keep these animals in a dis- 
gustingly tilthy condition that the cause of death is some con- 
tagious disease. By this means they endeayor, consciously or 
otherwise, to shift the resi)onsil)ility for the loss which they haye 
sustained. 

It is an unhappy fact that many of these people honestly think 
that "anything is good enough for a hog," and it is hard for them 
to conceiye that unwholesome food and excessiyely filthy sur- 
roundings could lead to fatal results. But it is a significant fact 
that in this State the great majority of deaths among swine are 
among x\w poorly kept and usually garbage-fed animals and ordi- 
narily the cause of death is not, so far as has been learned, a 
bacterial diseas(\ The inyestigations which we haye made dur 
ing the past summer show that yery probably one of the causes 
of death among animals fed upon the slops (including dishwater) 
fiom hotels and boarding-houses is poisoning by carbonate of 
soda (yvashing soda) which conies from the powdered soaps now 
used so extensiyely in the kitchen. At least it has been found 
that it requires a less quantity of powdered soap in the food to 
kill pigs experimentally than is used in many public and eyen i)ri- 
vate houses for cleaning dishes. The heayy losses sustained from 
deaths among swill-fed hogs, together with the unwholesomeness 
of garbage as animal food, suggests the desirability of discontinu- 
ing the practice of collecting kit(^hcn slojis for this jtuiposc. In 
the State of Minnesota I am told there is a law forbidding it. 
The use of table refuse and waste bits of yegetables can undoubt- 
edly be used with safety if they i\V(' fed while fresh and sweet. 
Tertainly ])ure water is miicli more desirable for drinking pur- 
poses, even for swine, than dish water. For a further discussion 
of this subject the reader is referred to Bulletin No. 141 of the 
f\)rnell Fniversity Agricultural Experinnuit Station, 1897. 



21 
II. 

SERUM THERAPY IN INFECTIOUS SWENE DISEASES. 

As methods for the production of immunity have not, after 
years of the most untiring and careful investigation, reached a 
practical basis, attention has been directed to the treatment of 
these diseases with the blood serum from immunized animals. 
The successes which have been obtained with the diphtheria and 
tetanus antitoxines suggested that perhaps similar results might 
be realized with the swine diseases, and already there has been 
much activity exhibited in exploiting the possibilities of this new 
field. Many of the efforts appear to have been fruitless, but oth- 
ers are giving promise of success. The fact should not be lost 
sight of that in these diseases, more, perhaps, than in any others, 
there are complications by way of mixed infection, and the effect 
of unwholesome food and bad environment, which may materially 
interfere with the neutralizing action and final result of the anti- 
toxin. 

Lorenz* seems to have been the first to use serum therapy on 
swine with success. He worked, however, with rouget. After 
immunizing guinea-pigs and rabbits against this disease, he used 
their blood to immunize swine. This being successful he used 
their blood in immunizing other swine. The method is reported 
to be fairly satisfactory. 

In the fall of 1896 two papers on serum therapy in American 
swine diseases appeared w^hich indicate that at least some of the 
dififlculties heretofore experienced in the direct use of the bacterial 
products are being overcome. The first of these was by Dr. 
E. A. deSchweinitzf of the Bureau of Animal Industry United 
States Department of Agriculture. He used antitoxin serum 
which was prepared by repeatedly Inoculating a cow. With the 
blood serum of this animal positive and constant results were 
obtained in guinea pigs. The amount of antitoxin required was 
6 c. c. per pound weight of guinea pig. We are promised in the 
paper a full account of this and other experiments in this line. 



* Deutsche Zeitschrift fiir Thiermedicin, Bd. XX. 

t Proceedings of the Society for the Promotion of Agricultural Science, 1896, p. 47. 



22 

Dr. A. T. i'eter.s,* of the b]xi>eriiueiit Station of Nebraska^ 
presented the other communication at the meeting of the United 
States Veterinary ^redical Association. He inocnhited horses 
with virulent cultures of the hog cholera bacillus, beginning with 
5 c. c. and incrf^asing the quantity until 20 c. c. was given at a 
time without apparent discomfort. After the animal ceased to 
react to the cultures, a small (luantity of the blood was drawn 
and tested on rabbits after the method used in testing diphtheria 
antitoxin on guinea pigs. When the horses were sufficiently 
immunized, their serum was tried on swine. His laboratory ex- 
periments show that it took from 8 to 10 c. c. of the undiluted 
serum to make a hog weighing 150 pounds immune to hog cholera. 
At the writing of his paper the serum had been tried in about 
23 herds reported to be affected with hog cholera. From several 
of these encouraging results had been obtained. 

The criticism on the paper as brought out in the discussion 
which followed it, is that positive evidence of the accuracy of 
the diagnosis of the disease in the herds in which the serum 
was used was not procured. Further, the usual mortality in 
similarly affected herds which were not treated is omitted. If 
the disease which he treated in the field was genuine hog cholera 
his results are very promising. 

Soon after the publication of the last-mentioned papers, Perron- 
cito,t announced the discovery of a vaccine for hog cholera. This 
I am told is a. blood product. It has become an article of com- 
merce Avithout having, to my knowledge, its efficiency verified for 
the disease as it occurs in this country. From tlie notice and 
circulars sent out 3 c. c. is the dose, regardless of the age or 
weight of the a.nimal. In France the sale of serum is authorized 
by law only after the Academy of Medicine has given its ap- 
proval to samples and inspected the laboratories where they are 
made, but the farmers in this country are not similarly protected 
either bv State or national laws. 



* Serum therapy in hog cholera. Proceedings of the United States Veterinary Medical 
Association, 189G, p. 59. 
t Noticed in Reciieil de Medecine V^t^rinaire, VI (1897), p. 71. 



23 

All c.r peri nwnt with the swine- plague serum prepared hy the Bureau 
of Animal Industry. — In January last, I made at the re(iuest of 
Inspector Quigley an inves'tig*a-tion into the naiture of an infec- 
tious disease which was destroying many swine in a herd near 
Auburn. As stated by the owner, the herd originally consisted 
of 72 animals, mostly shoats, a few of which had been purchased 
in the vicinity and the others raised on the place. Tbey had run 
together about the farm yards until late in the fall when they 
w'ere divided into three lots and penned. 

In pen No. 1, w^ere put 14 yearling hogs weighing about 250 
pounds each. 

In pen Xo. 2, were put 37 black and white shoats w^eighing 
about 60 pounds each. 

In pen No. 3, were put 21 white shoats w^eighing about 40 
pounds each. Pens Nos. 1 and 2 were in the same building but 
separated by a tight partition and several feet of floor space. 
Pen Xo. 3 wais a building by itself standing about 300 feet from 
the first. The animals were fed on swill obtained from the State 
prison at Auburn. Late in December the pigs in pen Xo. 2 began 
to sicken and die. The symptoms were said to be the refusal 
of food and a bad cough which developed a few days before 
death. A little later the older hogs in pen Xo. 1 were attacked 
and nine of them died. 

At the time of my first visit (January 28th) about 40 animials 
had died. Those which I found living were in pens as follows: 

In pen Xo. 1, there were five hogs all apparently well. 

In pen Xo. 2, there were four shoats all sick. 

In pen Xo. 3, there were 19 shoats all apparently well. 

In pen Xo. 4, there were two pigs which had been taken from 
pen Xo. 2, after the disease had appeared. They were both well. 

In pen Xo. 5, there was one pig which had been taken from 
pen Xo. 3, because it looked sick. 

Tlie animals, up to this time, had died at the rate of one or 
two a day after a sickness of from one to three weeks duration. 
I found two dead hogs from pen Xo. 1. Ttiey had been dead 
about ten and twenty-four hours respectively. Jnst before my ar- 



24 

rival one of the pigs from pen Xo. 2 had been killed by Mr. 
Quigley in what was thouj^ht to be the last stages of the disease 
and sent to nie by express. It was received and examined the 
following morning. The two old hogs were carefully examined. 

The lesions found in both of these animals were extensive hep- 
atization of the lungs. The cephalic, ventral, and a portion of the 
principal or caudal lobes were involved in both animals. In one 
of them there was extensive pleuritis. The spleens were slightly 
enlarged and dark-colored. The mesenteric glands w^ere enlarged 
and hyperaemic, in a few instances the cortex was hemorrha<gic. 
This was especially true with those in the smaller curvature 
of the stomach. The intestines presented a few^ areas of hyper- 
aemia but no distinct lesions. Tubes of agar inoculated from the 
S})leen and lungs gave pure cultures of swine-plague bacteria. 
Rabbits inoculated with pieces of the hepatized liung dii^d of swine 
plague on the fifth day. Those inoculated with the culture died 
in a short time. 

The small pig did not show any decided lesions. Tubes of 
media inoculated firom its org-^ans either did not develop or they 
contained impure cultures of sai)ro])hytic bacteria. 

As the disease appeared to be uncomplicated swine plague, it 
seemed to be a suitable outbreak in w^hich to try the serum 
therapy. l^rior to thi« I had been requesited by Dr. E. A. 
de8chweinitz, of the bureau of Animal Industry, to test this 
scM-uin if an opportunity arose. While this was by no means the 
ideal time in the course of the outbreak to begin, it wa.s thought 
best to try it. Unfortunately only a small quantity of the serum 
was obtainable at this time. 

February 2d, I again visited the outbreak, in company with Mr. 
Quiglcy, for the purpose of injecting the serum. AVe found that 
no deaths had occurred since our foinier visit, but that the disease 
had api)eared in pen No. 3, and three of the pigs were very sick. 
In selecting the animals upon which to try the serum, the wishes 
of the owner were observed. The animals chosen were as fol- 
lows: 



In pen No. 1, two hogs received subcutaneoiislv 24 e. e. each; 
one hog received subcutaneously 12 c. c; two hogs were reserved 
for checks. 

In i>en No. 2, four pigs received subcutaneously 12 c. c. each. 

In pen No. 3, three pigs received subcutaneously 12 c. c. each. 

These were sick. They were removed to another pen. In pen 
ISo. 5, one pig received subcutaneously 12 c. c. Sick. 

February 18th, I again inspected the animals and found three 
of the treated ones dead. These were: One from i)en 2, one 
from pen 3 and the one in pen 5. These were carefully examined 
and the lesions were those of swine plague. The lungs w^ere 
more or less hepatized. The spleens were slightly enlarged and 
the mesenteric glands were enlarged and oedematous. The in- 
testines were normal in appearance. From two of the animals 
the swine-plague bacillus was obtained. Cultures were not made 
from the third, on account of advanced post-mortem changes. 
The remaining pigs in pen No. 2 were no worse and the other two 
from pen No. 3 w^ere decidedly better. 

February 27th, I found a second pig dead from pen No. 2. 
The disease had again appeared in pen No. 3 and one animal had 
died. The post-mortem examination of these two pigs showed 
extensive lung disease. The intestines were not affected. Rab- 
bits inoculated with bits of lung tissue of the pig from pen 3 died 
on the sixth day with attenuated swine plague, as shown by ex- 
tensive pleuritis. 

Atthe request of the owner, more of the serum was obtained, and 
on March 1st the remaining pigs in pen No. 3 were injected. 
Since February 27th, two had died, leaving but thirteen still liv- 
ing. More than half of these were coughing. They were all 
injected subcutaneously in the groin with 12 c. c each of the 
swine-plague serum. The two dead pigs were examined and the 
lesions found to be restricted to the organs of the thoracic cavity. 

During the next two weeks five of the pigs treated March 1st, 
died. They were not examined, as notice of their death was not 
received until some days later. The other eight remained well 
or recovered, and subsequently they w^ere reported as being 



20 

tliritrv. I saw tlicni the latter })art of April and tliev looked per- 
fectly W(dl. The two survivors of the first lot of three from this 
pen re('o\-ei-e(l raj)idly. Some weeks later the t\\o pijj^s in pen 
No. 2 died. None of the ho^rs in pc'n No. 1 were attacked after 
the treatment. They were sold late in March. 

To summarize, there were, on February 11th, eleven animals 
treated, of which six died. Ei^^'ht of the eleven were obviously 
sick at the time they were given the serum. Later thirteen ani- 
mals were injected; of these, eight were sick at the time of treat- 
ment; of these thirteen, five died. Of the total of twenty-four 
treated, eleven died and thirteen survived. 

In drawing conclusions from this experiment several facts must 
be taken into consideration. Although all of the animals were 
not exauMned, there were enough post-mortems to show that the 
disease was very probably uncomplicated swine plague. It did 
not spread, however, to other herds in the locality. At the time 
the treatment was begun, forty animals had died, so that among 
the survivors we may have had those possessed of strong resisting^ 
power. Again, the virus obtained from the different animals 
was of the attenuated form, showing that possibly the disease 
was well-nigh spent at the time the treatment was begun. 

On the other hand, the disease among the pigs in pen No. 3 did 
not appear until just before the treatment. The owner had ti-ied 
to keep these animals isolated from the others, but in spite of his 
efforts there was much running by the farm hands from })ens 1 
and 2 to this one. The perfect recovery of two of the very sick 
pigs first treated from pen No. 3 is suggestive of a specific action 
on the i)art of the serum. Again, all of the animals attacked 
and which were not treated died, while of the twenty-four treated, 
at least sixteen were obviously sick at the time, and of these at 
least four recovered. The pigs did not receive the care, either 
in protection from cold and wet or in their food, that good farm 
hygiene demands. All things considered, thei^efore, the results 
arcs if taken al tluMr worst, encouraging. CiM'tainly the investi- 
gations along these lines are more promising for the final dis- 
covery of a sp<M'ific for this disease than along any others which 
have been proposed. 



27 



III. 

INVESTIGATIONS INTO THE NATURE OF THE DISEASE IN CER- 
TAIN DESTRUCTIVE OUTBREAKS AMONG SWINE. 

During the past year a careful and as thorough an investigation 
as the circumstances permitted has been made into the nature of 
the disease in several quite serious outbreaks among swine. 
These have been made in part under the auspices of the New 
York State Veterinary College and in part at the request of the 
Hon. C. A. Wieting, Commissioner of Agriculture. 

It is of interest to note that in all of the more important out- 
breaks which are here reported, the disease was popularly called 
hog cholera. The work w^hich has been done and which from 
necessity has been somewhat fragmentary and largely diagnostic 
in nature, has shown that certain of these outbreaks w^ere not 
due to any known infectious disease. The cause of the deaths 
seemed to be attributable to the bad hygiene. So long as the 
owners felt that the trouble was due to a contagious disease, they 
believed themselves helpless, but when they were shown that the 
losses w^ere not due to such causes, but probably to local condi- 
tions, the " scare " was usuall}^ allayed and efforts put forth to 
correct the evil. When the real nature and local causes of these 
O'Utbreaks are more fully and correctly understood, there is little 
doubt that the sanitary and hygienic conditions will be improved, 
and, as a result, the total amount of loss annually sustained from 
these causes^ will unquestionably be reduced by thousands of dol- 
lars. 

Emphasis should be placed on the question of diagnosis. It 
has been pointed out in the first part of this report that to make 
the diagnosis of hog cholera it is necessary to find certain kinds 
of tissue changes and the presence of the specific bacteria. If 
the changes in the organs are not like those described for hog 
cholera, and if the bacillus of hog cholera cannot be found in the 
organs of the dead animals, it cannot be affirmed that the disease 
is hog cholera. The same criterion must be applied to swine 
plague, anthrax and tuberculosis. 



28 

Outbreaks near Rome. — (A.) Disease at the Oneida County Home, 
Nov. 17th, lSi)G, I mad(\ at the recjucst of Dr. Huff, an investiga- 
tion into the nature of the disease among swine, reported to be 
both hog cholera and scarlatina, affecting the hogs at the Oneida 
County Home. Dr. W. H. Kelly, of Albany, and Inspector Quig- 
ley, representing the Department of Agriculture, were also 
present at the examinations. The history, as related by the 
superintendent, showed that about 70 small pigs, about six weeks 
old, and 8 fattening hogs had died. There were about 40 fat- 
tening hogs and a few shoats still living, and, with few exceptions, 
apparently in good health. The animals were kept in pens which 
opened into a yard in which horse manure had been placed in 
considerable (juantity, and in which the offal from several cattle 
which had been slaughtered for beef had been thrown . The fall 
rains had left the yard very wet and the offal was badly decona- 
posed. The j)ens themselves were found to be well kept. Al- 
though the yard was not more filthy than it is the custom of 
man}' people to permit, and even to think proper for swine, it 
was not a suitable place for keeping animals of any kind. The 
food consisted of the table refuse from the house, cooked potatoes 
and soft corn. 

The disease first appeared about two weeks before this, when 
35 of the i>igs were found dead and a few others sick. As soon 
as the disease appeared among the old hogs they were, at the 
suggestion of Dr. Huff, all turned into a grove, with the result 
that only eight died. The cause of death was thought to be 
some infectious disease, although, so far as known, there had been 
no chance of inf(Mtiug the herd. Hog cholera or swine plague 
was not known to have existed in the vicinity and new animals 
had not been introduced. The men in charge had not been off the 
farm and food liable to have been infected had not been pur- 
chased. Owing to the large number of hogs still remaining and 
in a condition ready for slaughter, it was very desirable to deter- 
mine, if jmssible, the nature of the disease. This could only be 
done by making a careful ix)st-mortem and bacteriologic exami- 
nation of such animals as were suitable for this purpose. Of 



29 

these there were but three. Two of them had died the night 
before and tlie other was sick at the time. All of these were 
carefully examined. 

Post mortem examinations. — Pig No. 1, Berkshire female three months 
old, weight about forty pounds. Died during the night. Post-mortem 
held at 9 a. m. Skin on the throat was covered with pink blotches, darker 
eolorod blotches nearly covered the skin between the fore legs and over 
the abdomen and thighs. 

Lymphatic glands of the inguinal region, also those in the vicinity of 
the head, slightly enlarged and oedematous, cortex hemorrliagic. Right 
lung sprinkled with a few ecchymoses, othei'wise normal. Tlie tip of the 
cephalic lobe of the left lung hepatized; the ventral and principal lobe 
slightly congested (hypostatic). 

Pericardium normal. In the left ventricle of the heart was a small num- 
ber of blackish clots. Right ventricle contained a larger quantity of post- 
mortem clots. 

Liver somewhat pale. Gall bladder contained a small amount of clear 
yellowish bile. Spleen dark colored, but not enlarged. On the ental sur- 
face there were a few small blood tumors. The left kidney was consider- 
ably enlarged, capsule easily removed, cortex sprinkled throughout with 
a large number of punctiform hemorrhages varying in size from a mere 
point to 2 mm. in diameter; pyramids normal; pelvis was filled with a dark 
clot. The right kidney presented the same appearance. The bladder con- 
tained about 5 c. c. of blood-stained urine. 

The mesenteric glands were slightly enlarged, cortex of many of them 
hemorrhagic, others veiT dark colored, showing evidences of older hemor- 
rhages. Stomach glands considerably enlarged and pigmented. 

Stomach contained a moderate quantity of partly digested food. There 
were a tew ecchymoses in the mucous membrane near the pyloric orifice. 
The mucous membrane of the duodenum was pinkish with areas of blood 
extravasation. The mucosa, of the jejunum, apparently normal. The 
ileum contained a considerable amount of blood-stained mucus, also a 
few small blood clots. The capillaries of the mucosa were considerably 
injected. In the lower two feet of the ileum the mucous membrane was 
covered with a thick layer of blood-stained mucus. The mucous mem- 
brane of the caecum and colon contained hemorrhagic areas. Lower colon 
contained a considerable quantity of semi-liquid feces and earth which 
were slightly blood stained. 

Barter iolofjic examination. — Several tubes of agar and gelatin were 
inoculated with bits of the tissue from the lung, liver, kidney, spleen, 
mesenteric glands and with the heart blood. Rabbits were inoculated on 
the following day with pieces of the consolidated lung and lymphatic- 
glands. 



80 

Tlio tubes of media inoculated remained clear with a very few excep- 
tions and those contained ordinary saprophytic bacteria. The rabbit re- 
mained perfectly well. There was not even visible inflammatory reaction 
at the place of inoculation. From the various orjjans which were brought 
to the lal)ora.toiy cover-glass preparations were made and stained for 
bacteria. They did not reveal the presence of microorganisms. 

Pig No. 2. Chester white, eight weeks old, weighing al>out fifteen 
pounds, male, had been sick about one week, poor condition. Skin over 
abdomen, inside of thighs, and over throat, of a pinkish color. Lungs and 
heart normal, splcMiu, liver, and kidneys apparently normal. The mucous 
membrane of the small intestines were slightlj' reddened. Mesenteric 
glands enlarged. The fundus of the stomach hyperaemic, no ulcers. 

Bartrriol()</ic r.rdmination. —Tubes of culture media were inoculated 
with the blood and bits of various organs. They remained clear. Bacteria 
could not be found on a microscopic examination in stained cover-glass 
preparations made from the blood, glands, liver and spleen. 

Pig No. 3. Jersey red, about four months old, weighing about seventy- 
five pounds. It had been sick for two weeks. It refused food, walked 
with an unsteady gait. No diarrhoea, was killed for examination. Not 
emaciated. The inguinal glands were considerably enlarged, slightly 
oedematous, cortex hemorrhagic. Lungs partly collapsed. Left lung con- 
tained several small areas of hepatization in the cephalic and ventral 
lobes. Surface of the entire lung sparsely sprinkled with eechymoses. 
The tips of the cephalic and ventral lobes of the right lung were hepatized, 
less number of eechymoses than the left lung. The bronchial glands were 
enlarged and hemorrhagic. The peiicardial sac c<:)ntained about 1(K) c. c. 
of clear straw-colored serum. Surface of heart nearly covered with iiTeg- 
ular areas of blood extravasations. The liver was firm and sprinkled with 
bluish areas due to thickening of the capsule. Tlie interlobular tissue 
was much increased. The spleen was slightly enlarged, darker than nor- 
mal but the pulp was soft. The left kidney was large, capsule easily re- 
moved, pale, cortex rather firm, the medullary portion swollen, the pelvis 
nonnal, the stomach and mesenteric glands were enlarged and the cortex 
deeply reddened. The mucous membrane of the intestines was normal, 
and of the stomach pale. Bladder contained about KM) c. c. of clear urine. 

A careful bacteriological examination was made of the various organs 
with negative results, liabbits were inoculated with bits of the affected 
lung tissut'. kidney and mesenteric glands. These animals remained well. 

It is probable from the viiriety of lesions found in the animals 
examine^d and the negative outcome of the bacteriological exami- 
nations that the disease was not of a specific bacterial origin. 
Theorelically there were conditions which niiglit ex]»lain the 
ojuise of death, but which we were not able to demonstrate. 
Ther<^ are reasons other than the negative bacteriologic results. 



31 



which indicate that this was not hog cholera, but that the deaths 
were due to local causes. These are: 

1. There was no known exposure to the disease and hog chol'era 
Lad not appealed in tlie neighborhood. 

2. The first indication of disease in the herd was the finding 
at one time of about 30 dead pigs, and several others sick. All 
of these seemed to have been well the day before. Subsequently 
very few others were attacked. 

3. The other animals which died were sick for various lengths 
of time. 

4. Although all the old hogs were exposed and many of them 
were sick, only eight died, the others recovering rapidly after 
they were placed in the open field. 

5. The disease did not spread from this to other farms. 

(B.) Disease among sicill-fed hogs. — At the request of Dr. Huff, 
we visited the farms of two men residing a few miles out of 
Kome who had lost about 40 hogs each, from what they thought 
was hog cholera. We found that each of these men had quite 
extensive garbage routes in the city of Rome, and were feeding 
swill thus collected to their hogs. Unfortunately, at the time 
of our visit the animals were nearly all dead and badly decom- 
posed so that post-mortem examinations were impossible. The 
symptoms as related, however, were very irregular and the period 
of duration of the disease variable. The facts which impressed 
us were the rotten garbage which was being fed and the dis- 
gustingly filthy condition of the pens and yards in which the 
animals were kept. It is exceedingly unfortunate that a specific 
disease like hog cholera should be accused of being the cause 
of death of all animals in herds kept under such conditions and 
before a careful examination has been made. 

The losses in these three outbreaks were not less than 150 
animals of which fully eighty hogs were nearly ready for the 
market. According to the owners, the value of these animals 
was more than ^^1,200, and a conservative estimate would be not 
less than |800. Besides this there was a loss of seventy pigs 
and shoats. 



Outbreak near Osn'('(/o. — I)nriii«j^ tlic summer and fall of ISOG^ 
several outbreaks of disease amou^^ swine occurred near Oswego. 
These were thought, by Dr. Toucher, to be largely due to hog 
cholera. The outbreaks were for the greater part in the herds 
fed ujion garbage and swill collected from hotels and boarding 
houses in the city. Late in the fall, a disease appeared among the 
hogs in a herd fed upon the garbage collected from a single large 
boarding house. From this herd the disease spread to several 
others, causing the loss of many animals. December twentieth, 
I made, with Dr. ^^^ 11. Kelly of Albany, an exa-mination of one 
of the animals which had died the day before in the last herd 
affected in the above-mentioned outbreak. The condition found 
is indicated in the appended pos.t-mortem examination notes. 

Post-mortem era mi tint ion.— Chester white, female, weight about 200 
pounds. It was reported to have been sick some days and to have 
coughed considerably. Tlie slvin over the ventral surface of the body was 
slightly pinkish in color. The mouth and tongue were normal. The left 
pleural cavity contained about 500 c. c. of blood-stained serum. The left 
lung was partially collapsed. The cephalic half of the principal lobe was 
firmly hepatized. The entire right lung was consolidated, it was of a 
dark reddish color and upon section the interlobular tissue was oedematous. 
A few of the lobules were hemorrhagic. The bronchioles contained little 
mucus. There were no adhesions between the lungs and the thoracic 
walls. The azygos lobe contained a few hepatized lobules. Otherewise 
it was normal in appearance. The bronchial glands were enlarged, by- 
peraemic and the pulp abnormally soft. The spleen was enlarged and of 
a dark color, the kidneys were large, the cortex apparently thickened, and 
the medullary portion i)ale. The capsules were easily removed. The left 
kidney contained several punctiform hemorrhages. The mucous mem- 
brane of the caecijm and colon was dark colored. 

The muco.sa of the fundus of the stomach was blackish and on section 
showed extensive hemorrhages. There were no ulcers. The lymphatic 
glands, especially those in the smaller curvature of the stomach, were en- 
larged and dark colored. 

lincttrioloi/ir r.iainination. — A number of tubes of agar, gelatin and 
bouillon were inoculated from the hepatized lung tissue, the heart blood, 
and from the liver and spleen, with the exception of the gelatin, those 
inoculated from the blood, liver and spleen and most of those from the 
lung contained on the following day pure cultures of the swine-plague 
bacillus. Cover-glass preparations made from the lungs contained swine 
plague bacteria in large numbers. Very few were found in preparations 
ma(l(? from the spleen. 



33 

Two rabbits were inoculated with bits of the diseased lung December 
22d. They died from swine plague septicaemia, one in IG and the other 
In 18 hours. 

The microscopic examination of the sections of the pneumonic lung 
showed in addition to the cellulur changes characteristic of the disease 
large numbers of swine-plague bacilli. 

This was an unquestioned case of swine plague or infectious 
pneumonia. From the history g-iven it is presumable that the 
other animals in this and adjoining herds had died of pneumonia. 
As soon as the diagnosis was made the Assistant Commissioner of 
Agriculture, assisted by Drs. Kelly and Poucher, took active meas- 
ures to check the spread of the disease. For details concerning 
the destruction of the remaining animals and quarantine see Dr. 
Kelly's report. 

OuthreaJc near Auburn. — January 28th, 1897, at the request of 
Inspector Quigley, I examined, with him, animals in a herd near 
Auburn, w%ich w^ere dying of a disease thought to be hog cholera. 
Already about 40 shoats and fattening hogs had died. They 
w^ere fed upon the garbage from the State Prison at Auburn. 
The examination of two animals showed lesions characteristic of 
pneumonia or swine plague. Subsequently several others were 
post-mortemed in this herd, all of which exhibited pneumonic 
lesions, and from which the swine-plague bacillus was obtained. 

As I had been requested by Dr. E. A. deSchweinitz, of the 
Bureau of Animal Industry, United States Department of Agri- 
culture, to test the swine plague antitoxin which was being pre- 
pared by the Bureau, arrangements were made for doing 
so on this herd. The full report of this experiment, with the fur- 
ther particulars obtained concerning the nature of this disease, 
were described on page 23. 

An outbreak of a mixed infection of hog cholera and swine plague 
at Fishkill Landing. — At the request of Dr. H. E. Allison, medical 
superintendent of the Matteawan State Hospital, at Fishkill Land- 
ing, an investigation was begun May 6th, 1897, for the purpose 
of determining the nature of a destructive disease which had 
appeared among the hogs on the farm belonging to that institu- 
tion. The herd consisted of eleven breeding sows, two boars, 
3 



34 

sixty-two sboats and seventy-six small pigs. Up to this time 
twenty-one slioats had died. 

The hogs were housed in well-kept pens, each of which opened 
into a good-sized yard. The ground in the yards was dry, with 
the exception of a feW' holes, which contained muddy water. The 
land was rather low-. A number of shoats had been turned into 
a piece of cleared woodland adjoining the fields in w^hich the pens 
were located. In this woodland there were several wet, marshy 
places. The hogs were fed the table refuse from the hospital. 
It was carefully sorted and fed while fresh. In preparing the 
food it was put into a trough, thoroughly mixed with water and 
considerable wheat bran was added. During the winter the food 
was cooked before feeding and the kitchen refuse was never kept 
over from one day to the next. 

The disease first appeared about the end of the first week in 
April, when a few shoats were affected. It gradually extended 
to others and nearly all of those attacked died. They were sick 
from a few hours to several days. The symptoms were reported 
by the man in charge of the animals to have bepn exceedingly 
variable. Usually there was a cough, and a partial paralysis of 
the hind limbs. In a few animals the skin over the abdomen 
w^as of a pinkish color. Some of the hogs had a diarrhoea; 
others were constipated. A post-mortem examination was made 
by the man in charge on a few of the animals which died early in 
the outbreak. He reported finding the ^' lungs in a ver^^ bad condi- 
tion." At the time of this visit four animals were carefully ex- 
amined post-mortem. 

Pig Xo. 1.— FtMiialo, two years old, \veig:ht about 250 pounds. She bad 
recently given birth to several pig:s. She had been sick but a short time. 
The examination was made not over two hours after death. A little blood 
was Qozin.2: from the nostrils. The skin was not discolored. Upon section 
the flesh was normal in appearance. The liver was deeply reddened due 
to en^'orcrement of the blood vessels. Blood flowed freely upon section. 
The spleen was slightly enlarged and dark colored. The kidneys were 
hyperaemic, especially the medullary portion. In the pelvis of the right 
kidney there was a large blood clot. The mucous membrane of the intes- 
tines was normal with the exceivtion of several irregular areas of 
hyperaemia. In the fundus of the stomach was a large, dark blood-clot. 



35 

No ulcers. The mesenteric glands were enlarged and darker tlian normal. 
In a few cases the cortex was hemorrhagic. The right lung was in a 
state of hyperaemia. The heart contained very little liquid blood. 

Bartniolopk- ciamination. — A few bacteria were found in stained 
cover-glass preparations from the spleen and liver. Two tubes of agar 
were inoculated with bits of the tissue from the.hyperaemic lung, liver, 
spleen and kidneys. These tubes developed cultures of the hog-cholera 
bacillus. A few of them were pure cultures; the others contained, in ad- 
dition to the hog-cholera organism, a quite large bacillus. 

May Sth. rabbit No. 35. was inoculated subcutaneously with 0.5 c. c. of 
a dilute suspension of the growth from one of the spleen cultures. 

May 15th, rabbit died this morning. The post-mortem examination 
showed the liver to be pale, the spleen very much enlarged, dark colored 
and friable. The kidneys were slightly hyperaemic. The intestinal tract 
normal. The heart sprinkled with ecchymoses. Cover-glass preparations 
from the various organs showed many small bacilli. Pure cultures of the 
hog-cholera bacillus were obtained from the heart blood and spleen. The 
bacillus obtained from this animal was carefully studied and cultivated 
on the various media. It was found to differ from the type of B. cliolerae 
■suis in producing indol. The nonpathogenic organism found to be as- 
sociated with the hog-cholera bacillus in this animal has not been specifi- 
cally determined but it is believed to be one of the normal intestinal forms. 

Pig Xo. 2.— This hog died during the night and had just been burled. 
Male weighing about 50 pounds. It had been sick for several days. The 
skin over the abdomen was deeply reddened. The liver was firm the inter- 
lobular connective tissue thickened, the centers of the acini were deeply 
reddened. Spleen slightlj' enlarged and dark colored. The kidneys were 
hyperaemic and the cortex of each thickly sprinkled with punctiform 
liemorrhages. The mesenteric glands were enlarged and pigmented. The 
intestines appeared to be normal. The stomach contained undigested food 
and earth. The mucous membrane over the fundus was hyperaemic and 
contained several hemoiThagic areas. The right lung was hyperaemic 
and contained several areas of hepatization. The pleura was covered with 
a grayish sand paper like exudate. In certain areas this was distinctly 
membranous but for the greater part it was plastic. The parietal pleura 
was similarly affected. The left lung was partially collapsed and hyperae- 
mic but no areas of consolidation. The pleura was covered with a very 
thin, pasty exudate. 

BnHeri<)U)(iic f.ramiuation. — Several tubes of agar were inoculated at 
the post-mortem from the exudate over the lungs and from the liver, spleen 
and kidney. On the second day following, plate cultures were made from 
the exudate, liver and kidney, which were brought to the laboratory in 
sterilized jars. 

The cultures made both at the post-mortem and in the laboratory con- 
tained two species of bacteria, namely, the swine-plague bacillus and the 
large bacillus found associated with the hog-cholera bacillus in pig No. 1. 



36 

In the tube cultures this organism seemed, on account of its much more 
vigorous growth, to predominate. In the plate cultures from the exudate, 
however, only a few colonies appeared, while those of the swine-plague 
bacillus were very numerous. Plato cultures were made and rabbits were 
inoculated from the cultures obtained from the liver, spleen and kidneys. 
These failed to reveal the presence of any hog-cholera bacteria. The 
swine-plague bacillus appeared in each case. Rabbits were inoculated 
with the contaminating bacillus with negative results. 

A rabbit, inoculated subcutanoously with an emulsion of the lung pre- 
pared by grinding it in a mortar with bouillon, died in .3G hours and its 
organs contained innumerable swine-plague bactxn-ia. I*ure cultures of 
this organism were obtained from the blood. 

Pig Xo. 3.— This pig had died the day before and had been buried. It 
was dug up for examination. Black and white pig. weight about 60 
pounds. There was no discoloration of the skin; the liver, spleen and 
kidneys resembled those in pig No. 2. The serous coat of the intestines 
was thickly sprinkled with punctiform hemorrhages. The mucosa was 
deeply reddened in certain areas. The lymphatic glands slightly swollen 
and oedoniatous. The cephalic lobes of both lungs w(n*e collapsed. Other- 
wise the thoracic organs were normal in appearance. Cultures were made 
from the spleen and liver. These contained hog-cholera bacteria in im- 
pure cultures. No swine-plague bacteria were found. 

Pig Xo. 4.— This pig had been dead and buried for 24 hours. It was 
about the size of pig No. 2. The examination showed lesions resembling 
closely those of pig No. 2, but post-mortem changes had discolored parts 
to such an extent that details were precluded. There was no consolidation 
of the lungs or ulcers in the intestines. Cultures were not made. 

Pig Xo. .5. — (Pigs Nos. 5 and were received at the laboratoiy June 5th, 
they having been sent by express for the purpose of examination). This 
pig was found dead June 4th. White, male, weight about 12 pounds. It 
was considerably d(x?omposed. Tliere was no consolidation of the lung 
tissue. The liver, spleen and kidneys were not enlarged. In the caecum, 
upi)er and transverse portion of the colon, the mucous membrane was 
thickened and ncK-rotic. The mesenteric glands were enlarged. Cultures 
were made in agar and bouillon and a rabbit inoculated from the intestinal 
lesions. A portion of the intestine was thoroughly washed in boiled 
water, the superficial necrosis was scraped away. Bits of tissue from the 
base of the necrotic mass were obtained for making the inoculations. The 
cultures revealed the presence of Bacillus coU communis, and the bacillus 
of hog-cholera. The rabbit died on the eighth day with lesions chanicter- 
istic of those produced l)y hog-cholera bacteria and from the blood pure 
cultures of the hog-cholera bacillus were obtained. 

Pig Xo. f).— This pig was about the same size as pig No. 5. It was 
killed in what was thought the last stages of the disease on the morning 
of June fourth. It was slightly affected from deeomiwsition. The liver 
was firm. The spleen slightly enlarged and the kidneys sprinkled with 



37 

puiictiform hemorrhages. In the caecum and colon there were a few folli- 
cular ulcers. The lungs appeared to be normal. Agar and bouillon cul- 
tures were made from the liver, kidneys and follicles. The latter de- 
veloped impure cultures of Bacillus coli communis but the bacillus of hog- 
cholera was not isolated. Rabbits inoculated with large quantities of the 
cultures remained well. 

At the time of mv visit the disease had spread to several of 
the pens and consequently a large number of the animals had 
been exposed. Of these, 54 are reported by Dr. Allison to have 
died subsequently; but of the 54, 39 were small pigs. In nearly 
all of the cases which developed after June sixth, the animals 
were sick from 5 to 15 days. The total loss up to June twentieth 
was 5 breeding sow^s, 31 shoats and 39 small pigs. The results 
of the examination of the six pigs show that the disease was a 
mixed infection of hog cholera and swine plague. Pig No. 1 
furnishes a good illustration of the acute type of hog cholera 
and in pig Xo. 5 is an illustration of the chronic form. In pig 
No. 2 we had a case of apparently uncomplicated swine plague, 
in which the lesions were restricted to the plural membranes. 
It is unfortunate that more of the animals could not have been 
examined but the facts elicited were sufficient to warrant the 
diagnosis. Such mixed outbreaks are not uncommon as shown 
by the investigations of the Bureau of Animal Industry and those 
of Drs. Welch and Clements. It appears from their repoirts that 
the two diseases frequently coexist in the same animal. Al- 
though the loss was in itself heavy, it will be seen that a trifle 
less than 50 per cent, of the animals in the herd died. This 
is a low mortality for epizootics of either of these diseases. The 
success attained in checking the disease is attributable to the 
great care exercised in isolation and disinfection. As already 
Mated the disease had become quite w^ell disseminated before 
its infectious nature was determined. 

This outbreak is of much interest from the fact that the chan- 
nel theough which the hog cholera virus gained entrance to the 
herd has not been found. 'Sporadic cases of sv^ne plague not 
infrequently occur from which the specific bacillus is obtained, 
l)ut as yet we do not know of hog cholera appearing in such a 



38 

manner. The animals in this herd were kept under the most 
favorable conditions, respecting general care, ventilation, and 
cleanliness. The food was carefully prepared and wholesome. 
Hog cholera had not appeared in the vicinity and animals had not 
been purchased since the fall before, and the herds from which 
they came had not been affected. While the source is not known, 
the facts are suggestive in pointing out the necessity for further 
investigations into the normal habitat and distribution of hog 
cholera bacteria. 

Miscellaneous. — In addition to the above I have visited several 
localities where hog cholera or swine plague was reported to be 
raging. Those i>laces visited, at the request of the Commissioner 
of Agriculture, W'ere.at Schoharie, Albany, Batavia and Mans- 
ville. 

At Schoharie the disease had disappeared, but the history and 
description of the lesions, as given iby Dr. Marsh, who made a 
few post-mortems, indicate that it was swine plague. There was 
also some evidence that it had been contracted from animals at 
a county fair, where these had been taken. Later a few more 
pigs were attacked, but the disease was reported not to have 
spread be^'ond this farm. At Albany the disease had likewise 
disappeared. At Batavia a few hogs were found suffering from 
slight paralysis, but not sutiiciently so to warrant their slaughter 
for examination. There had been considerable loss among the 
hogs on a few farms. The origin of the outbreak was traced to 
a boar^ which had been bought by Mr. W., and which had been 
at the State Fair. The disease was said to have spread from 
this animal. Later, Mr. W. sent us the lungs, liver and spk^n of 
two of the hogs which died. A careful bacteriologic exaniinatiou 
was made, but the specific bacteria of hog cholera or swine plague 
could not be found. 

At Mansville, where I went in company with Inspector Quigley, 
was found a most deplorable condition. In the basement 
of a barn, filthy beyond description, were about 40 hogs, old 
and young, actually starving. Besides these there were about 
15 cows, in a similar condition. The animals were emaciated^ 



39 

standing in filth, with no bedding and an exceedingly small allow- 
ance of food. Already several hogs had died and a few had been 
sold. The conditions found were reported to the local health 
officer^ and to the Society for the Prevention of Cruelty to Ani- 
mals. However, the owner of this herd had appealed to the 
Commissioner of Agriculture for assistance in eradicating the 
disease, with the hope that the Department would pay for and 
destroy the animals. 

In July, Dr. J. A. McCrauk, of Plattsburgh, sent to this labor- 
atory two pigs from a herd of about 40, nearly all of which had 
died of an epizootic disease. These proved to be suffering from 
hog cholera, as demonstrated by post-mortem examination. It 
should be stated that in other herds Dr. McCrank found the cause 
of death to be the use of swill (dishwater) containing strong alkali 
from powdered soaps. 

Dr. W. H. Kelly, of Albany, who has investigated a number of 
outbreaks of reported infectious swine disease, has sent us for 
diagnosis during the year material from no less than seven out- 
breaks in which he was unable to find characteristic lesions and 
in which a positive diagnosis could not be made without the aid 
of a bacterio'logic examination. With tw^o exceptions the cul- 
tures made and animals inoculated from this material failed to 
reveal the presence of any pathogenic bacteria. One or more 
specimens of a similar nature have been received from a number 
of veterinarians for examination and diagnosis. It is a signifi- 
cant fact, however, that very few of these appeared to have 
come from animals which died from a bacterial disease. The 
results of the examination of this material suggests the need of 
more thorough and more extended investigations into the nature 
of these epizootics. In order that one may speak positively con- 
cerning the nature of these outbreaks, it is necessary to have a 
careful examination made of a considerable number of the ani- 
mals which die in each epizootic. The best interests of the live- 
stock industry of the State require that these epizootics and 
enzootics should be accurately diagnosed and the methods best 
adapted for their eradication rigidly enforced. 



40 



IV. 

A DESCRIPTION OF THE BACILLI OF HOG CHOLERA AND 
SWINE PLAGUE. 

The specific organisms of these diseases have already been care- 
fully and fully dt^scribed. There are perhaps no other two species 
of pathogenic bacteria concerning which there has been more 
confusion than the bacilli of hog cholera and swine plague. 
While they are distinct species, widely separated by their morpho- 
logic characters and biochemic properties, they are frequently 
mistaken the one for the other. There is still some uncertainty 
manifested concerning the identity of the bacteria of these dis- 
eases with those of certain swine affections found in Europe. It 
has already binm pointed out that the American hog cholera, the 
English swine fever and Danish swine pest are identical. The 
American swine plague and the German Schweineseuche are be- 
lieved to be the same. This conclusion is based upon the ri^sults 
of a number of special bacteriologic investigations which have 
been carried out in both this country and in Europe. As many 
requests are being received for descriptions of the hog-cholera 
and swine-plague bacteria, and also as there are some swine 
raisers in this State whose exjierience has caused them to feel 
that the diseases we call hog cholera and swine plague are differ- 
ent from those described in the reports of the Bureau of Animal 
Industry, it has seemed desirable to append a description of these 
bacteria, based upon a careful study of the cultures obtained 
from swine in this State. It has been impossible, in the time at 
our disposal, to carry out extended investigations into the bio- 
chemic or pathogenic properties of these forms beyond the limits 
necessary for diagnosis. As was expected, the organisms studied 
have ])roved to be identical with those described from outbreaks 
in other i)arts of the country. It is important, however, for 
those who find slight discrepancies to remember that both the 
morbid anatomy and the bacteria of these diseases are subject 
to certain variations. These variations will be referred to in 
later paragraphs. 



41 



Bacillus choJcrae suis (Bacillus of Hog Cholera). 

Morphology. — A rod-shaped organism varying in size accord- 
ing to the medium in which it has developed. From agar 
cultures it is from 1.2 to 1.8 microns long and from .5 to 
.8 microns broad. The ends are rounded. Spores have not 
been observed. It is actively motile and a variable numbei', 
but usually from 3 to 5 flagella have been demontrated.* 
The length of the flagella also varies. The average seems to 
be about 7 microns** although filaments 55 microns with an aver- 
age length of 35 to 10 microns are reported.! It stains readily 
with the aniline dyes. Preparations made from cultures usually 
stain uniformly; while in the preparation made from the tissue 
of inoculated animals there is frequently exhibited a light center 
with a deeply stained periphery. 

Cultural characters and hiochemic properties. — This bacillus is 
grown readily on all of the ordinary media used in bacteriologic 
work at a temperature of 30 to 38° C. 

Agar. — On the surface of inclined agar after 21 hours at a 
temperature of 37° C. a grayish, glistening nonviscid growth 
appears. When isolated the colonies are nearly round, convex 
.5 to 2.0 mm. in diameter. The edges are sharply defined, and 
even. In stab cultures a grayish growth develops along the 
needle track with a more vigorous growth on the surface about 
the needle puncture. The growth reaches its maximum in about 
48 hours. 

Gelatin. — In this medium the growth is moderately feeble, 
the colonies appearing as grayish dots. When magnified they 
are finely granular and of a yellowish tint. The quantity and 
form of growth depends considerably upon the reaction of the 
gelatin. If decidedly alkaline there is often a tendency for the 
growth to spread. There is no softening or liquefaction of the 
medium. 

* Moore, Wilder Quarter-Century Book, 1893, p. 355. 

** A micron Is MOOO of a millimeter, or 1-25000 of an inch. It is the unit for microscopic 
^measurements. 

tFerricr, Archives de Med, Exper. et d'anat. Patholog. VUI, (1895), p. 58. 



42 

Potato. — Tho ,i!:rowth on potato takes the form of a very thin 
glistening layer. It is usually of a faintly yellowish color but 
this is subj(^et to variation on dilferent potatoes. If the reaction 
is strongly acid no growth aj^pears. 

Bouillon. — In alkaline bouillon it imparts in 24 hours a uni- 
formly cloudy a]»iM'aranc(' (o tlu^ rKpiid. Ordinarily there is no 
membrane on the surface. Afler some days' standing the growth 
begins to settle, forming a grayish, friable sediment. If the 
bouillon contains muscle sugar the reaction will be changed ta 
acid, in from 24 to 4S hours, due to the fermentation of the 
sugar. Liiter, however, the liciuid will become strongly alkaline, 
unless there was too much muscle sugar. In acid bouillon the 
growth is less vigorous. It grows better in a bouillon containing 
peptone than in a simple beef broth. 

Milk. — Wlicn the milk is acid in the beginning it gradually 
becomes alkaline. There is no precipitation or coagulation of 
the casein. After standing for from two to three weeks in an 
incubator a gradually developing opalesence of the milk can be 
observed. Later it becomes clear, then light brownish in 
color. If allowed to stand longer in the incubator the volume 
of the culture shrinks by evaporation and the opalescent liquid 
becomes quite thick and dark-colored but not viscid. When the 
opalesence appears the milk is strongly alkaline. The process 
seems to be a form of saponification of the fat globules due to 
the presence of the alkali produced by the bacteria. 

Dunham's solution. — In this solution the growth is quite feeble.. 
Ordinarily no indol reaction is obtained. (The writer has ob- 
served a marked indol reaction in two cultures of the hog cholera 
bacillus.) 

Gas production. — In peptonized bouillon containing 1 per cent, 
dextrose, gas appears within 24 hours and continues to form for 
from three to five days. During the first day from one-fourth 
to one-half of the total quantity is produced. By the end of the 
second day the gas formation is nearly at an end. The total 
amount which collects in the closed branch of the fermentation 
tube is equivalent to about one-half of the capacity of this branchy 



43 

The gas set free is oomposed of OOg and. an explosive gas whicb 
consists largely of H. The ratio of CO to H in the fermentation 
tube is approximately as 1 to 2. The reaction of the liquid be- 
comes strongly acid, which condition checks the multiplication of 
the bacteria. 

Gas is not produced in bouillon containing lactose or saccha- 
rose. These sugars are not fermented. Alkaline cultures con- 
taining them become more strongly alkaline as the growth con- 
tinues. 

Thermal reactions. — This organism grows very feebly at a tem- 
perature of 20° 0. It will not thrive at a temperature above 43° C. 
It is destroyed when exposed in moist heat at 58° C. for 10 min- 
utes. 

Disinfectants. — This organism is destroyed after an exposure 
for 10 minutes or less in the following solutions : 

Carbolic acid, 1 per cent. 

Hydrochloric acid^ 1-5 of 1 per cent. 

Sulphuric acid, 1-20 of 1 per cent. 

Sulphate of copper, 1-4 of 1 per cent. 

Formalin, 1 to 2,000. 

Trikresol, 1-2 of 1 per cent. 

Lime is also a good disinfectant when used in preparations con- 
taining about 1 per cent. CaO. ; 

Drying. — This bacillus resists drying for a variable length of 
time, according to the amount of protection it has. In a drop of 
a bouillon culture dried on a cover-glass and kept under bell jars, 
the vitality is retained for 5 to 8 days. In bits of animal tissue 
containing the bacilli, the vitality is retained for from 20 to 40 
days, according to the quantity of tissue taken. 

Pathogenesis. — Subcutaneous injections of from 1 to 3 c. c. 
rarely produce fatal results in swine. An intravenous inocula- 
tion of 5 c. c. usually produces a septicaemia. With smaller 
doses the " button ulcers," characteristic of hog cholera, have 
been produced (Welch). By feeding pigs with pure bouillon cul- 
tures the intestinal lesions, typical of hog cholera, have also been 
obtained (Smith). 



44 

Rabbits inoculated subcutaneausly with 0.1 c. e. of a bouillon 
oultnre die in from 5 to 8 days. The essential lesions consist of 
necrotic foci in the liver and a very much enlarged and dark-colored 
spleen. Guinea-pigs are affected similarly to rabbits, but death 
does not usually occur until from 7 to 12 days. Pure cultures 
of the bacillus can be obtained from the blood, liver or spleen 
of the inoculated animals. 

While the above description applies to the form most frequently 
encountered, the existence of varieties must be accepted. In 1894 
Dr. Theobald Smith* called attention to several varieties of this 
species. On account of the significance of these forms, his tabu- 
lated description of them is inserted. 

* Bulletin No. 6, Bureau of Animal Industry, United States Departnaent of Agriculture, 



45 



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47 

On account of the wide differences which exist between forms 
recognized as varieties of the hog-cholera bacillus, it becomes 
difficult to tix the common characters which circumscribe the 
hog-cholera group of bacteria. A careful study of certain of 
these varieties will show that they possess properties not dissimi- 
lar fix)m certain of those attributed to extreme varieties of 
Bacillus coll communis. The pathogenesis is usually considered 
of first importance, but here w^e find forms possessed of as little 
virulence as certain varieties of the colon group. The closer 
study of bacteria is directing attention not only to the signifi- 
cance of a fixed pathogenesis, but also to other characters, for 
it is believed by some writers that the disease-producing power 
of bacteria is the last character acquired and evidently it is the 
most variable and most readily lost. It is at the present time 
difficult, in fact impossible^ to point out any limiting characters 
or properties for this group. Dr. Theobald Smith suggests " that 
all bacteria whose size approximates that of this group, which do 
not liquefy gelatin and whose fermientation properties are the 
same as those described for the group, should be ranged under it.'' 
The study of these bacteria has opened up important fields for 
investigation and thrown out many valuable suggestions for 
future inquiries concerning the important problems involved in 
the etiology of infectious diseases. 

Bacillus Septicacmiae Hemorrhagicae. IIuppe. 

(bacillus of swine PLAGUE).) 

Morphology. — A non-motile, roid-shaped organism varying from 
0.8 to 2.0 microns in length and from 0.1 to 1.2 microns in breadth. 
The ends are oval, and the shorter forms resemble micrococci. 
The size depends upon the medium and the stage of development 
of the individual bacteria. A capsule has not been demonstrated, 
although often there appears to be one in preparations made di- 
rectly from tissues. It is not observed in cultures. Spores have 
not been seen. Involution forms are not uncommon in old cul- 
tures. They are especially numerous in the organs of a rabbit 
when it is allowed to lie for some honrs after death, before it 



48 

is examined. It exhibits, when stained in cover-glass prepara- 
rations made directly from animal tissues, a light center with 
deeply stained extremities (polar stain). In prejiarations made 
directly from cultures this character is much less marked. It 
stains readily with the basic aniline dyes. It does not retain the 
coloring matter when stained after Gram's method. 

Cultural and hlochemic properties. — This organism is less hardy 
than the bacillus of hog cholera, and on certain of the media used 
it grows very feebly or not at all. It requires a temperature of 
about 37° C. although it develo})s very slowly at the room temper- 
ature. 

Agar. — The growth on this medium is not vigorous. It is of a 
neutral grayish color, with a glistening, moist appearing surface. 
It is slightly viscid and adheres to the agar surface. Isolated 
colonies vary from 1 tO' 2 mim. in diameter, nearly round, con- 
vex, with smooth and sharply-defined margins. The condensation 
water becomes faintly clouded with a grayish sediment which be- 
comes viscid. Within the agar the colonies appear as minute 
grayish dots. In agar, esix^cially in plates (Petri dishes), it emits 
a peculiar disagreeable pungent odor. 

Gelatin. — Ordinarily it does not grow in gelatin. (Dr. Theo- 
bald Smith found that certain cultures grew in this medium.) 

Potato. — It does not grow on potato. 

/>o?//??o/?.— Alkaline peptonized bouillon becomes uniformly 
clouded in 24 hours when kept at a temperature of 36° C. Oc- 
casionally cultures are obtained in which the growth appears in 
the form of fiocculent masses, but usually after a few generations 
these disappear and the liquid becomes uniformly cloudy. If the 
bouillon contains any dextrose or muscle sugar, its reaction be- 
comes acid in 24 to 48 hoarrs, owing to the fermentation of the 
carbohydrate. With the virulent cultures the liquid clears within 
a few days. The small amount of grayish sediment becomes vis- 
cid after some days, and upon agitation it is forced up, appearing 
as a somewhat twisted tenacious cone^ with its apex at or near 
the surface of the liquid. Frequently a thin, grayish, somewhat 
viscid band composed of bacteria is found on the sides of the tube 



49 

at the surface of the liquid. It will not grow iu acid bouillon. 
If the bouillon contains from 1 to 2 per cent, glucose, the growth 
is slightly more vigorous. 

Effect on sugars. — In the fermentation tube, alkaline bouillon 
containing sugars become uniformly clouded in both branches. 
Gas is not produced. In bouillon containing dextrose and sac- 
charose the reaction becomes strongly acid in 24 hours, but the re^ 
action of alkaline bouillon containing lactose is not changed. 

Milk. — Milk inoculated with this organism remains unchanged 
in appearance for several weeks. When boiled, after this period, 
the casein is not coagulated. 

Indol. — This organism grows feebly in Dunham's solution; some 
cultures have given a decided indol reaction, but others have not. 
The production of indol is reported to be one of the properties of 
the German swine plague. Smith* obtained only a trace of 
indol in one out of four cultures of swine-plague bacteria. 

Phenol. — This was found by Lewandowski'sf method in all of 
the cultures tested by Smith [l. c). I have failed to obtain the 
reaction in a few cultures, but usually it appears. 

Thermal death point. — This organism is destroyed in bouillon 
at 58° C. in ten minutes. A temperature of 56° C. for this time 
did not destroy its vitality. 

Effect of drying. — This bacillus can not stand drying. The 
bacilli in a drop of bouillon dried on a cover-glass and kept at 
the room temperature are destroyed in 24 to 36 hours. In similar 
preparations made from agar cultures they resist drying from 
five to eight days. The difference in the time between the two 
cultures is probably due to the thicker layer in case of the agar 
preparations. 

Persistence of vitality in icater and soil. — Experiments to deter- 
mine the length of time this organism will live in water and in 
the soil show that it is destroyed in water in test tubes in from 
nine to eleven days. In the soil it was not found after eight days. 
Dr. Smith states that it is destroyed in the soil after four days. 



• Special report on swine plague, 1891, p. 8J 
t Deutclie med. Wochenschrift, 1890, s. 1186. 

4 



50 

Poicer to resist disinfectants. — The bacillus of swine plague is 
very sensitive to the action of disinfectants. A large number of 
these agents have been tested. The following ai^ among the 
more important: 

Oommercial sulphuric acid, J per cent, kills in 30 minutes. 
Commercial sulphuric acid, | per cent, kills in 10 minutes. 
Lime, lime water kills in 1 minute. 
Lime, 0.015 per cent, kills in 30 minutes. 
Carbolic acid, ^ per cent, kills in GO minutes. 
Carbolic acid, 1 per cent, kills in 5 minutes. 
Carbolic acid, 2 per cent, kills in 1 minute. 
Formalin, solution 1-2000 kills in 5 minutes. 
Trikresole, -} per cent, kills in 5 minutes. 

PatJiogcncsis. — This organism is pathogenic for rabbits, guinea 
pigs and mice among the smaller experimental animals and for 
swine. With the virulent form rabbits inoculated either sub- 
cutaneonsly or in the vein with very small, 0.001 c. c. doses, 
die of septicaemia in from 16 to 24 hours. Guinea pigs are 
slightly less susceptible. When inoculated subcutaneously with 
0.1 to 0.2 c. c. of a bouillon culture, they die in from 30 to 72 
hours. Mice succumb in about 24 hours when inoculated with 
a drop of the culture. Pigs inoculated intravenously usually die 
from acute septicaemia in from 18 to 36 hours. If they live lon- 
ger there may be decided lung lesions. (See report on swine 
plague. Smith.) 

Distribution of swine plague bacteria in nature. — Dr. Smith dis- 
covered in the study of isolated or sporadic cases of pneumonia 
that the swine j)lague bacillus was present although the source 
of infection could not be found. Following out the method intro- 
duced by Sternberg in 1881, he inoculated rabbits with the secre- 
tions from the upper air passages of healthy swine and curiously 
enough found that over 40 per cent, of healthy swine harbor 
this organism. These observations were extended to other ani^ 
mals with the result that this species was found to be quite 
widely distributed in the upper air passages of the domesticated 



51 

animals. Later the writer* made a careful study of this 
subject. From the results obtaiued it was shown that a 
bacillus not distinguishable from the swine plague bacillus is 
present in 48 per cent, of healthy pigs, 80 per cent, of cattle, 
50 per cent, of sheep, IG per cent, of horses, 30 per cent, of dogs 
and 90 per cent, of cats. These percentages are necessarily based 
upon a comparatively small number of examinations. In the 
sheep the bacteria were possessed of a low degree of virulence, 
while those from the various cats jiossessed a very high degree 
of virulence, requiring but from 18 to 24 hours to kill rabbits. 

It should be observed that so far as cultural characters and 
pathogenesis for rabbits are concerned the bacillus of swine 
plague is not distinguishable from the bacillus of rabbit septi- 
caemia (Koch), of fowl cholera (Pasteur) and of the German 
Wildseuche. There is little definite knowledge concerning their 
distribution in nature outside of the living animal body. On this 
point there is special need of further investigation. 

For convenience in comparing the properties of these two 
species of bacteria, and in order that they may be more easily con- 
trasted, I have arranged them in like order in parallel columns. 

Bacillus of Hog Cholera. Bacillus of Swine Plague. 

1. Rod-shaped organism with 1. Elongated oval organism 0.8 
ends rounded, 1.2 to 2.0 microns in to 1.5 micron in length, 0.6 to 0.8 
length, 0.5 to 0.8 micron in width. micron in thickness. The size 
The size varies according to the varies according to the stage of 
stage of growth and division, and growth and division, and the cul- 
the culture media. ture media. 

2. From cultures it stains en- 2. From old cultures it usually 
tirely. In tissues it usually stains stains entirely. When in process of 
around the periphery with darker division as found in the organs of 
extremities leaving a light centre. ^"^^^^^^ ^^^^ ^^^^^^^ the extremities 

o A +• 1 -t-1 • T •/! stain leaving an unstained central 

3. Actively motile m liquids. , , ,, , . „ 
^ ^ « ^ ^ „ band, polar stain.' 

4. From 3 to 9 flagella are demon- o tvt ^ ^.^^ - t -^ 

^ 3. Not motile in liquids. 

^^^^^®- 4. No flagella have been found. 

5. Vigorous growth in alkaline 5 Growth moderate or feeble in 
nutrient liquids. Less vigorous if alkaline nutrient liquids. No 
liquids are acid in reaction. growth if liquids are acid. 

• Bulletin No. 3, Bureau of Animal Industry, United States Department of Agri- 
culture, 1893, p. 38. 



62 



G. Moderate growth on potato. 
(Varies acconlinfr to reaction.) 

7. Distinct j2:rowtli on golatiu. 

a Saponilies milk in from 3 to 4 
weeks. 

9. Ferments dextrose with the 
formation of acids and gas. 

10. Does not ferment lactose. 
Bouillon containing it l>ecomes 
strongly alkaline. No gas. 

11. Does not ferment saccharose. 
Bouillon containing it becomes 
strongly alkaline. No gas. 

12. Destroyed by moist heat at 58 
degrees C. in 15 minutes. 

13. Dies in water in from 2 to 4 
months. 

14. It dies in the soil in from 2 
to 3 months. 

15. Rabbits injected subcutan- 
eously with 0.1 c.c. of a bouillon cul- 
ture of a virulent bacillus will die 
in from 5 to 7 days. Enlarged 
spleen, necrotic foci in liver. 

16. Rabbits inoculated with cul- 
ture of an attenuated variety live 
from 10 to 20 days or recover. The 
lesions are enlarged spleen, and in- 
filtration of the follicles in Peyer's 
patches. 

17. In guinea-pigs the lesions are 
practically the same as in rabbits. 
Death occurs in from 7 to 12 days. 

18. Pigs are not usually affected 
by subcutaneous injection of small 
quantities of culture. If the pigs 
are killed within 1 to 3 weeks the 
bacilli are found in the local lesion 
and certain of the lymphatic glands. 
Fatal results are reported in a few 
cases by these injections. 

19. Feeding cultures to pigs 
which have fasted for 24 hours pro- 
duces extensive intestinal lesions 
with fatal results. 

20. Intravenous inoculation into 
pigs causes either an acute septi- 
caemia or a chronic form of the 
disease in which are produced quite 
typical round, firm, elevated ulcers. 



G. No growth on potato. 

7. Feeble or no growth on gela- 
tin. 

8. Produces no apparent change 
in milk. 

9. Ferments dextrose with the 
formation of acids but no gas. 

10. Does not ferment lactose. 
No gas. 

11. Ferments saccharose with the 
formation of acids. No gas. 

12. Destroyed by moist heat at 
58 degrees C. in 7 minutes. 

13. Dies in water in from 10 to 
15 days. 

14. It dies in the soil in from 4 
to 6 days. 

15. Rabbits injected subcutan- 
eously with 0.01 c. c. of a bouillon 
culture of a virulent bacillus will 
die in from 16 to 20 hours. Sep- 
ticaemia. 

16. Rabbits inoculated with a cul- 
ture of an attenuated variety will 
live from 4 to 10 days. The lesions 
are local infiltration of pus cells 
with pleuritis, pericarditis or peri- 
tonitis. 

17. Guinea-pigs are slightly less 
susceptible than rabbits. There is 
more local reaction. Death occurs 
in from 1 to 4 days. 

18. Pigs are not usually affected 
by the subcutaneous injection of 
small quantities of culture. The 
bacilli are not found except in the 
local lesion. In a few cases fatal 
results are reported. 

19. Feeding cultures to pigs usu- 
ally produces no effect. 

20. Intravenous inoculation into 
pigs usually produces a septic form 
of the disease which kills in from 1 
to 2 days. Inoculation into the 
lungs causes pleuritis, usually ac- 
companied with pneumonia. 



53 

DESCRIPTION. OF PLATES. 

Plate 1. A portiou of tlio caecum of a pig affected with hdg 
cholera. It shows the ulcers on the mucous membrane. The 
tied s*mall intestine is shown at the right with the ileo-caecal 
valve. (From the report on hog cholera, Bureau of Animal In- 
dustry, United States Department of Agriculture, 1889.) 

Plate 2. Spleens from two pigs of the same age ajid weight. 
(a) Spleen of healthy pig. (b) Spleen from a pig deaxi from hog 
cholera. Drawings two-thirds natural size. 

Plate 3. Right lung of pig. The stippled portion is usually 
involved in cases of infectious pneumonia or swine plague, 
c-cephalic lobe, b-ventral lobe, a-principal lobe. The ventral lobe 
is usually the seat of the more advanced disease and consequently 
the first to become hepatized. The cephalic portion of the prin- 
cipal lobe (X) is usually hepatized and the remaining portion 
deeply reddened. 

Plate 4. Hog-cholera bacteria. (1) A drawing from a stained 
preparation from a bouillon culture four days old.. It shows large 
involution forms. (2) A drawing of a part of the field from a 
stained cover-glass preparation from the spleen of a rabbit which 
died from the effects of hog-cholera bacteria. A few of the bac- 
teria show a light center. (3) Hog- cholera bacteria showing 
flagella. Magnified about 1^000 diameters. 

Plate 5. Swine-plague bacteria. (1) Drawing of a part of a 
cover-glass preparation of swine plague bacteria from a bouillon 
culture. (2) A drawing from a cover-glass preparation made 
from the spleen of a rabbit showing the polar stain. (3) A 
drawing from a similar preparation made from the lung of a pig 
which died of swine plague. It shows a large number of bac- 
teria, very few of which exhibit the polar stains. The drawings 
show the bacteria magnified about 1,000 diameters in Figs. 2 and 
3 and about 2,000 diameters in Fig. 1. 



PLATI<] I. 




Ulcerated Caecum— Hog Cholera. 



PLATI-: 11 







B 



KflS«;ii| 




Normal and Diseased Spleens— Hog Cholera. 



I'LATE III. 




Swine Plague Lung, 



platb: IV. 



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/ ' 



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• # 



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I / 



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, ' "a-^^ 



^ / fl 




Hog Cholera Bacteria. 



PLATE V 



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« « 



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■flo" 



Swine Plague Bacteria. 



Remarks on Anthrax and Rabies with Special 
Reference to Outbreaks Recently Investigated. 



By Veranus A. Moore, B. S., M. D. 

Professor of comparative Pathology and Bacteriology, New York State Veterinary College, 
Cornell University, Ithaca, N. Y. 



I. 

Duiring the summer and fall of 1897 one outbreak of anthrax 
and two of rabies have come to our notice. In addition to these 
a few specimens of organs from animals supposed to have died 
of anthrax have been sent to this laboratory for diagnosis, but 
the examinations have given negative results in all of these cases. 
In the outbreaks about to be mentioned the investigations w^ere 
in case of the rabies restricted to making the diagnosis, but w^ith 
the anthrax Touissant's preventive treatment was tried. On 
account of the infrequency of the occurrence of these diseases, 
and the fact that there are still many people who believe that 
they do not exist in this country to such an extent as to render 
them of any practical importance, it has seemed desirable to call 
attention not only to the existence of these maladies but also the 
methods of diagnosing and preventing them. It is necessary in 
order to secure the highest protection for our live stock interests 
that these maladies should be better understood, for of the infec- 
tious diseases common to men and the lower animals these are, 
next to tuberculosis, most deserving of attention. The signifi- 
cance of these affections may be more fully appreciated from the 
fact that anthrax has already been reported in fiifteen of the 
States, and rabies is annually causing hundreds of deaths among 
domesticated animals as well as destroying many human beings. 



It is, therefore, incumbent upon every citizen to take all neces- 
sary precautions to prevent the entrance of these maladies and 
to use all possible means to eradicate them if, perchance, they 
should make their appearance in the future. 

An Outbrkak of Anthrax Near Elmira, with Results Ob- 
tained BY Touissant's Preventive Treatment. 

At the request of the Hon. C. A. Wieting, Commissioner of 
Agriculture, I visited Elmira September 24, 1897, to make an in- 
vestigation into the nature of a destructive disease which had 
appeared among the cattle on a farm in that vicinity. Three of 
the farm hands were also affected, but eventually they recov- 
ered. I was accompanied to the infected herd by Dr. Wadsworth, 
of Oobleskill, and Doctors Ross and Jeffery, of Elmira. At this 
time the disease in the attendants had been diagnosed by Dr. 
Ross as malignant pustule, and on the basis of this diagnosis 
he had assumed that the disease among the cattle was anthrax 
and had brought it to the attention of the Commissioner of 
Agriculture. 

It was learned that on September 8th, a cow which had 
been kept on another place was found sick and brought home. 
Later she died, and in skinning this animal the attendants were 
infected. The disease first appeared in the men September 
lllh. September IGth a second cow died very suddenly, Septem- 
ber 21st a third cow died and on the 2.3d three more were buried. 
At the time of our visit one cow was in a state of collapse. 
Although the diagnosis of malignant pustule in the attendants 
seemed to be correct, a positive diagnosis of the disease in the 
cattle was of much importance. To this end the sick cow was 
killed and carefully examined. 

Cow No. 1.— L-arge, well developed cow in g-ood condition, temperature 
98 degrees F. Unable to walk, killed by a blow on the head and by bleed- 
ing. Two liters of the blood were collected in sterile jars. Blood not ab- 
normally dark or thick, the spleen seemed to be slightly darker than nor- 
mal. On the omentum were numerous slightly congested tufts. Other- 
wise the abdominal organs appeared to be normal. There was a small 



3 

quantity of clear urine in the bladder. The heart and lungs appeared to be 
normal. Several tubes of agar and gelatin were inoculated from the heart 
blood, spleen, liver and kidneys. Pieces of these organs were placed in 
sterile jars and brought to the laboratory where they were carefully ex- 
amined. 

The post-mortem examination left serious doubts in the minds 
of all present concerning the nature of the disease. The absence 
of practically all Oif the lesions described as being tj-pical of 
anthrax gave ample reason for the manifest doubt. The autopsy 
was made about noon and later in the afternoon the tissues ^ere 
examined microscopically in the laboratory. Stained cover-glass 
preparations from the spleen showed large numbers of anthrax 
bacilli. In similar preparations made from the liver, kidneys, 
and blood there was a less number of the organisms. On the 
following day all of the inoculated tubes contained apparently 
pure cultures of the anthrax bacillus. 

On the second day the growth in the gelatin tubes appeared. 
They were all pure cultures of hacilhis antliracis. The baoterio- 
logic examination, therefore, proved the existence of anthrax. 
Without this examination the positive diagnosis in this animal 
could not have been made. 

September 26th, I again visited the herd and found that a 
Jersey cow had been taken sick the evening before and had died 
just before my arrival. Three others were found to be affected 
as indicated by the temperatures which were 105, 105.7 and 107.7° 
F. respectively. The dead animal was carefully examined. 

Cou- Xo. 2. — Small Jersey cow. Blood was oozing from the anus. The 
abdominal cavity contained a considerable quantity of blood-stained 
serum. The blood was very dark, the spleen was enormously enlarged, 
very dark colored, soft, and the capsule contained ecchymoses. Upon sec- 
tion the blood and pulp flowed quite freely. The liver was slightly con- 
gested, kidneys deeply reddened and in the bladder there was a small 
quantity of dark wine colored urine. On the omentum were numerous 
hyperaemic tufts. The intestines were hyperaemic. There were several 
ecchymotic areas beneath the pericardium. The lungs were congested. 
About two liters of the blood were collected from the vena cava. Por- 
tions of the spleen and liver were brought to the laboratory where a 
microscopic examination and cultures were made. These revealed the 
presence of anthrax bacilli. 



About 20 c. c. of milk was taken from each teat in sterile 
tubes, for examination. The milk from one quarter was slightly 
blood stained, but from the others it was normal in appearance. 
Upon microscopic examination the anthrax bacilli were found 
in the preparations made from the blood-stained milk but they 
were not discovered in those made from the other specimens. 
Guinea pigs were inoculated subcutaneously with 2 c. c. of the 
milk from each teat. They all died of anthrax in from 24 to 72 
hours, showing that the bacilli were present in each specimen 
although not numerous enough, with the one exception, to be 
easily detected microscopically. 

Milk was also collected from one of the cows which was sick 
and had been for two days. Iler temperature, when the milk 
was taken, was 10G.5° F. This was examined microscopically 
and two guinea pigs were inoculated subcutaneously with 3 c. c. 
each. No anthrax bacilli were found in the preparations and 
the guinea pigs remained well. This cow recovered. Another 
specimen of milk was taken from a cow having a temperature of 
105° F. The examination gave negative results. It would seem, 
from the few examinations made, that the bacilli in the milk 
from cow No. 2, had gotten into it just before or immediately 
after death. There are cases reported, however, where the dis- 
ease has been contracted from drinking the milk of affected cows. 

Some difficulty was encountered in the disposal of the dead 
animals. Those which had died before out visit had been buried 
and fortunately, with the exception of the first, without being 
opened. It was necessary to examine post-mortem the last two 
for tlu' ])urp()se of diagnosis, rufoi-tunalcly it was not i)racticable 
to burn llie animals, and c()nsc((uently Ihcy were buried deeply 
and the bodies covered with a. liberal (piantity of (piick lime. 
The owners w(M'e directed to cover the suiface over all of the 
graves with a thick iay(^r of lime and to put a fence around them, 
thus ])n'V('ntiug other animals from <;razing oven* them. 

The importance of this outbreak does not stop with the losses 
sustained in tliis herd. The fact that the disease was brought 
on the farm by the cow which contracted it on a neighboring 



farm, is significant in showing that the place where the disease 
was found, is not the only infected spot in the neighborhood. 
It is rumored that several cows have died, presumably of an- 
thrax, during the fall on a near-by place. It seems that losses 
are being sustained in that locality from this disease without 
the owners of the cattle recognizing its true nature. In conse- 
quence of this the dead animals are inadequately disposed of 
and the barns and yards are not disinfected. Unless active' 
measures are taken to destroy the virus in all of these cases, the 
future promises to see this section so saturated with anthrax 
that dairying will become practically impossible. However, if 
such precautions as are known to be effective are taken, it seems 
to be an easy task to eliminate the disease, although several years 
may be necessai^ to accomplish it. 

PREVENTIVE TREATMENT. 

Up to the time of the first visit, September 24th, seven cows 
including the one killed for examination at that time had died. 
There were still twenty animals in the herd. The sick were being 
separated from the others as soon as they showed signs of disease, 
but it was evident that the entire herd had been exposed and that 
the pastures and cattle yards had very probably become quite 
generally infected. The stables were thoroughly disinfected 
with sulphuric acid and the yards covered w4th lime. It was 
decided, however, to try preventive inoculation according to a 
modification of the method recommended by Touissant, as this 
could be applied with little delay, which in this herd seemed to 
be of great importance. Further, Dr. Law has for several years 
followed this method with success in several serious outbreaks 
which have come under his observation. 

The method recommended by Touissant is to heat the defi- 
brinated blood from an animal dying, or just dead, from anthrax, 
for from ten to fifteen minutes at a temperature of from fifty to 
fifty-five degrees C. Dr. Law has followed the practice of 
heating the blood to a much higher temperature in order 
to be sure of the death of all bacilli present. It seemed, how- 



6 . 

ever, that wo should be assured by actual cultivation tests that 
the heated blood was free of all living bacilli ot spores before it 
was injected into healthy animals. Accordinj^ly the blood col- 
lected from cow Xo. 1, was brought to the laboratory, diluted 
after Dr. Law's mi^thod, thoroughly heated in an autoclave, 
strained and filtered. The filtrate was placed in small flasks and 
boiled. After cooling a number of tubes of bouillon and agar 
were inoculated from it. These remained sterile. On the 26th, 
this preparation of blood was used on all the cattle still living in 
the herd. The blood preparation was injected subcutaneously 
in the dose of 4 c. c. in each of the well animals. The injections 
were repeated and the temperatures taken by Dr. Jeft'ery, of 
Elmira, on each of the two following days. The outcome was 
eminently satisfactory as not one of the animals treated showed 
a rise of temperature after the injection. The temperatures 
were again taken 0<*tober Gth. They were all normal. 

As already stated, on the date of injecting the cows we found 
three sick animals. It was not thoug'ht desirable to inject these, 
as their death seemed to be inevitable, but as the owner thought 
they would die anyway, he was anxious that they should be in- 
cluded, and his request was granted. The effect of the treatment 
on the three sick animals was quite surprising. The tempera- 
tures at the time of the first injection was 105.7, lOG and 107° F. 
Two days later they w^ere 102^ 101 and 106.6° F. respectively. 
The temperatures taken subsequently showed that those of the 
first two remained normal and that of the third gradually sub- 
sided, reaching the normal in about two weeks. 

The successful results obtained in preventing tihe spread of the 
disease in this herd are in accord with those heretofore experi- 
enced by Dr. Law. The facts that the cattle were coming down 
with the disease at the rate of two a day when the treatment 
w^as begun, and that the thorough disinfection of the barns was 
not completed, owing to an accident with the disinfectant, until 
two days later (September 29th) suggests that the preventive 
treatment possessed some degree of efficiency. Laboratory ex- 
periments on the smaller animals, and also on cattle, are now in 



progress by which it is hoped to determine to what extent, if any, 
the heating of the blood to a higher temperature will affect the 
efficiency of the original method. We do not feel that the blood 
heated at the low temperature recommended by Touissant is 
safe, although it seems to have many adherents in France. If 
this i>rocess can be rendered safe and possessed of the same 
degree of efficiency that it has appeared to have in this outbreak, 
it would seem to be more practicable and a much safer preven- 
tion than the Pasteur vaccine treatment. 

Pasteur's method consists in inoculating the animal Avith a 
small quantit}^ of a culture which has been cultivated at a high 
temperature — 42-43° C. — for several days. This deprives the 
bacilli of their virulence. To strengthen the resistance, the ani- 
mals are again inoculated with a stronger virus. After the two 
inoculations they are said to be protected against the most viru- 
lent anthrax, but this immunity is of short duration. Chamber- 
land reported in 1894 that a total of 1,988,677 animals had been 
inoculated in France, and the loss from anthrax had diminished 
from 10 per cent, in sheep and 5 per cent, in cattle to less than 
1 per cent. Cope, in his report to the English Board of Agricul- 
ture, regards the conclusions of Chamberland as somewhat falla- 
cious^ because in order to prove that the animals inoculated re- 
ceived immunity, it should be showm that they were subsequently 
exposed to the risks of natural infection. The excellent work 
w^hich has been done by Neal and Chester, at the Delaware Col- 
lege Experiment Station, has shown the possible efficiency of 
this method. Of the 331 cows which they vaccinated against 
anthrax, two died of the disease, giving a death rate of less than 
1 per cent., and this in a territory so saturated with the virus that 
it was practically impossible to keep cattle at all before its use. 

A more critical study of the reports on the use of this vaccine 
shows that w^hile success can not be denied, failures must be ad- 
mitted. It is reported both in England and Germany that the 
Pasteur vaccine has not been a marked success. In England, 
Klein, who tested the vaccine used in that country, found that if 
the animals did not die from the effect of the vaccine, they did 



8 

when exposed to the disease. The German veterinarians and 
agriculturalists agree that the first vaccine is mild and harmless, 
but that the second vaccine;, even in the hands of experts, is dan- 
gerous and often fatal. The fact is reported to have been demon- 
strated by experiment that the virulence of the attenuated virus 
is easily restored. Again, it has been shown by the investiga- 
tions of Chester and Neal, of the Delaware College Agricultural 
Experiment Station, that a vaccine which succeeded at one time 
subsequently proved fatal. The vital objection to this method 
is, that it riMjuires the use of the living bacilli which may become 
virulent. The scattering of pathogenic organisms, even in an 
attenuated condition, should, if possible, be avoided. It must be 
admitted, however, that this method has done great good and 
helped to rob anthrax of much of its former terror, especially for 
the farmers of Europe. Notwithstanding, it is highly probable 
that the spreading of a knowledge of the cause of this disease has 
also had a great influence in checking its ravages. 

In Germany and England the stamping-out system is consid- 
ered superior to vaccination. According to Crookshank, in Eng- 
land it is regarded as the only reliable means of suppressing thb 
disease. To this end rigid laws have been enacted. In this State 
steps for its eradication seem infinitely better than the adoiition 
of methods for establishing a tolerance for its existence. 

THE CAUSE OF ANTHRAX. 

As earlj' as 1849, Pollender called attention to peculiar rod-like 
bodies in the blood of animals dying of anthrax. In 1803, Da- 
vaine published the results of investigations in which he showed 
that the disease could be produced by inoculating animals with 
the blood or tissues containing these rod-shaped organisms. 
Later, Koch isolated the bacilli, cultivated them on artificial media 
and with these cultures he produced the disease. This estab- 
lished the specific nature of anthrax. 

The bacillus of anthrax {Bacillus antliracls) is a rod-shaped or- 
ganism varying in length from one to four microns, but having 
a (luite uniforuL breadth of about one micron. In a suitable 



medium it grows out in long flexible filaments, which combine to 
form thread-like bundles. When examined, the ends of the rods 
seem to be square cut. In preparations from animal tissues there 
appear sometimes to be slight concavities in the ends of the seg- 
ments when two of them are united. In old cultures spores are 
formed. These are oval, highly refractive bodies held within the 
cellular envelope of the filaments, but later they are set free by 
the dissolution of this membrane. It stains readily with the 
aniline dyes and also b^^ Gram's method. 

The bacillus of anthrax is aerobic. It grows on all of the ordi- 
nary culture media at a temperature of from 20 to 38° C. It does 
best in a neutral or slightly alkaline medium. Its growth is 
arrested in acid media. In bouillon it develops in ragged some- 
what flocculent grayish masses, which are usually held in suspen- 
sion. In gelatin tube cultures a grayish growth appears along 
the line of the needle puncture, from which lateral thread-like 
ramifications extend. The gelatin begins to liquefy on the sur- 
face in from two to three days. On agar the colonies are quite 
characteristic, appearing under the microscope to consist of in- 
terlacing filaments. Gas is not formed in bouillon containing 
sugars. It does not produce indol. The casein in milk is at first 
coagulated and later digested leaving a clear brownish colored 
fiuid. It is pathogenic for nearly all of the smaller animals, 
destroying rabits, guinea pigs and mice in from twenty-four to 
forty-eight hours. The essential lesions being a local oedema. 

In diagnosing this species it is to be differentiated from the 
groups of bacteria which are represented by the bacilli of malig- 
nant oedema and of sj^mptomatic anthrax or Rauschhrand. It is 
also sometimes confounded with a rod-shaped organism usually 
present in decomposing animal tissues. All of these organisms 
are anaerobic, and, in their morphologic and biochemic prop- 
erties, they differ from each other and from the anthrax bacillus. 
Bacillus suUilis has occasionally been taken for the anthrax 
bacillus but it is readily separated in cultures. It is important, 
however, to recognize the possibility of an error, if the condi- 
tions restrict the examination to the study of but one or two 
characters or properties. • 



10 

The bacillus of anthrax itself is Dot an especially hardy organ- 
ism, but on the contrary it is easily destroyed by weak disin- 
fectants and it has a low thermal death point. On the other 
hand its spores are among the most hardy of bacterial life to 
resist chemical and thermal agents. They resist drying for 
months or years and often boiling for a half hour or longer does 
not destro}^ them. On this account it is very difficult to eliminate 
the virus from infected pasture lands, especially if they are wet 
or marshy. 

The question is naturallj^ asked, how are these bacteria intro- 
duced, where do they come from, and what are the channels 
through which they are able to pass from one locality to another? 
These are questions of the first importance in connection with 
the prevention or eradication of the disease. It should be stated 
that thus far investigations have failed to reveal any definite 
knowledge pertaining tO' the distribution in nature or the 
origin of the bacillus of anthrax. We are forced, therefore, to- 
conclude that wherever the disease appears its virus has been 
introduced in some way, at some previous time, although it may 
have been years in the past. 

In fact it has not been difficult in most cases to find a means of 
entrance. As the spores may remain in the soil in a dormant 
condition for many years it sometimes happens that the disease 
does not appear until long after the introduction of the virus. 
Anthrax has been known to break out among cattle grazing on 
a field in which were buried many years before the hides from 
affected animals. Through some means the spores were able to 
get to the surface and contaminate the grass. Pasteur thought 
the earth worms were active agents in this work. Koch's in- 
vestigations tend to disprove this theory. The spores may be 
introduced through blood or bone fertilizers. The skin, hair, 
w^ool, hoofs and horns could if taken from infected animals carry 
the virus to the place of destination of these articles. When 
the extent of this traffic is realized, it is easy to understand how 
anthrax has been brought to this country and why it occasionally 
appears here and there over a large part of the continent. Many 
outbreaks, as well as isolated cases, illustrating this common 
method of dissemination are on record. 



11 
II. 

Two Outbreaks of Rabies. 

On account of llie infreqnency of rabies there is, as might be 
expected, much indifference concerning it until an outbreak of 
greater or less importance actually occurs. When a dog is 
suspected of being mad it is usually killed and buried without 
having the true nature of the disease from which it suffered de- 
termined. This practice is unfortunate especially if the sus- 
pected dog has bitten other animals or men. If the positive 
diagnosis is made it tends to relieve the anxiety of those con- 
cerned. If it is in the affirmative, precautions can be taken by 
keeping the exposed animals either in confinement or by destroy- 
ing them at once, and all persons who have been bitten can 
avail themselves of the Pasteur treatment which has become 
recognized as a highly effective prevention if taken in time. 

This suggests the question, how can a positive diagnosis be 
made? It is to the investigations of Pasteur, and others follow- 
ing his methods that we are indebted for a method by which the 
diagnosis of this most dreaded of all diseases can be made. Al- 
though rabies is a specific malady its etiological factor has not 
been isolated, but Pasteur has shown that it is always present 
in the brain and spinal cord of the affected animal. He has 
also pointed out the fact that if rabbits or other experimental 
animals are inoculated beneath the dura with a drop of a suspen- 
sion of the brain from the rabid dog, they will develop the disease 
after a certain length of time. This method is now in general 
use among pathologists for diagnosing rabies. Some w^orkers 
use guinea pigs but ordinarily rabbits are taken. In the writer's 
experience the symptoms are more marked in rabbits, than in the 
guinea pig. 

The method as ordinarily follow^ed is this: The brain of the 
animal supposed to have died of rabies is removed under aseptic 
precautions and placed in a sterile jar. A small piece of it, 
usually from the medulla, is ground in a sterile mortar with a 
few cubic centimeters of sterile water or bouillon until the brain 
tissue is held in suspension in fine particles. The rabbit is then 



12 

•etheriz(Ml, the hair clipped from the forehead, and the skin thor- 
oughly washed with a disinfectant. A longitudinal incision is 
made in the skin which is held back, a crucial incision is made 
in the periosteum at one side of the median line, the points 
turned back, and with a small trephine a disk of bone is removed 
leaving the dura (juite exposed. AVith the hypodermic syringe, 
a drop of the brain suspension is easily injected beneath the 
dura, the periosteum returned and the wound in the skin 
w^ashed with a disinfectant. The rabbit soon recovers from 
the anaesthetic. The inoculation wound heals rapidly, and the 
animal appears to be perfectly happy until the premonitory symp- 
toms develop. This should not occur for at least ten days in 
cases of street rabies. The first symptoms usually appear in 
from fourteen to thirt}" days, occasionally they do not develop 
for a much longer time. The writer* has observed fifty days 
to pass before they appeared in a few rabbits. 

The symptoms are not well marked at first. They consist of a 
slight nervousness then paralysis beginning usually in the hind 
legs. The paralysis gradualh' creeps forvNard so that, in from 
a few to twenty-four hours, the rabbit lies on its side unable to 
rise or move. It lives in this condition from a few hours to one 
or two days. In exceptional cases longer. Ordinarily the 
paralysis lasts from twelve to twenty-four hours. 

Just piior to the development of the objective symptoms there 
is a rise of from one to two degrees in the temperature. This 
lasts from twenty-four to forty-eight hours w^heri usually it 
rapidly subsides and, soon after the paralysis begins, it is sub- 
normal, often reaching as low as 00° F., several hours before 
death. 

The condition found on the post-mortem examination are also 
of much assistance in making a diagnosis. If the animal died 
from septicaemia or brain injury, there should be lesions recog- 
nizable in the brain or viscera. In the case of septicaemia a 
bacterioh)gic examination will reveal the preseuc(^ of micio- 
organisms. If death was caused by rabies the inoculation wound 

♦BuHetin No. 10, Bureau of Animal Industry, U. S. Department of Agriculture, 1893. 
Moore and Fish. Annual Report of the Bureau of Animal Industry, 1S95-1896, p. 272. 



13 

in the head should be healed perfectly, there should be ixo abscess,. 
and the meninges should be free from exudates and the brain 
itself should appear perfect!}' normal, except that in some cases 
there may be a slij>ht injection of the blood vessels. The viscera 
are ordinarily normal in appearance, with possibly the exception 
of the liver, which is frequently found to be deeply reddened. 
The gastric mucosa occasionally shows dark patches which ap- 
pear to be disintegrated hemorrhagic areas. A bacteriologic 
examination fails to reveal the presence of micro-organisms in 
either the parenchymatous organs or blood. 

The differential diagnosis in experimental animals is not diffi- 
cult. Babbits inoculated with several varieties of pathogenic 
bacteria frequently exhibit symptoms of paralysis for a brief 
period preceding death. In cases of injury to the brain or spinal 
cord there may also be paralysis which in the absence of the 
history of the case might be taken for that of rabies. In these 
cases, however, the symptoms appear very soon after inoculation. 
This is especially true when the paral^^sis is due to mechanical 
injury of the brain or to irritating or septic substances, and in 
the case of the pathogenic bacteria if paralysis occurs, it is pre- 
ceded by a period of greater or less time during which the animal 
was sick. The method of diagnosing rabies requires that the 
inoculated animals remain apparently well for a considerable 
length of time after the subdural inoculation and before the 
paralytic symptoms appear. 

Although the diagnosis of rabies in the street dog is often ex- 
ceedingly difficult from the symptoms manifested, it is a simple 
and very easily diagnosed disease if the rabbit inoculation me- 
thod is followed. While we are as yet ignorant of the specific 
agent, we have in the brain such a localization of it that for all 
practical purposes the brain or spinal cord of the affected animal 
may be used, as a pure culture of the virus. With it the disease 
can be produced and with it, through a process of attenuation, 
the disease can be prevented as shown in the Pasteur treatment. 

The economic importance of rabies is of much more signifi- 
cance than is generally supposed. During the past year numer- 



14 

ous outbreaks of rabies among cattle, horses and swine have been 
phiced on record. The fact that rabid dogs frequently wander 
miles into the country and are prone to bite all men and animals 
happening in their wa}^ frequently results in many victims from 
one dog. While statistics are not available from which even 
the approximate number of animals destroyed by this disease 
can be determined, it is known to be large. A conservative 
estimate would place the annual number among the thousands, 
and the human victims are numerous. While all who are bitten 
do not contract the disease, it is the exception, when a known 
rabid dog bites several animals that one or more of them do not 
die of the disease. The appended description of the cases and 
the method employed in making the diagnosis in animals dying 
in two outbreaks of rabies which occurred in this State during 
the summer and fall just past and w^hich were brought to the 
notice of the Commissioner of Agriculture, and were investigated 
by his authority, are good illustrations of the disease. 

Rabies near Saratoga. — According to reports, a shepherd dog 
belonging to Mr. Hart began to act strangely about May 12th. 
During the next few days he bit several dogs^ three cows, Mr. 
Hart, his son and a neighbor. The neighbor took the Pasteur 
treatment for rabies. Two of the cows which w^ere bitten and 
Mr. Hart died of rabies. There appears, however, to be a doubt 
concerning the diagnosis in the case of Mr. Hart. Unfortunately 
there seems to have been no post-mortem, and inoculations with 
a bit of the brain or spinal cord were not made. The son re- 
mained well. The bitten dogs were, with one exception, killed. 
These are the essential facts concerning the history of the cases 
as I gathered them from the letters received from Dr. Childs and 
Dr. Kelly. For the full particulars the reader is referred to the 
ofiicial report of Dr. W. H. Kelly, who made an investigation of 
the outbreak for the Commissioner of Agriculture. 

Cow Ko. 1. — June 21st there was received at this laboratory, 
from Dr. Cliilds, of Saratoga Springs, the brain and a portion 
of the spinal cord, one kidney, a small piece of the lung and three 
mesenteric glands from a cow supposed to have died of rabies 



15 

and also to have been slightly affected with tuberculosis. In my 
absence the material was carefully looked after by Dr. P. A. Fish 
and Mr. R. C. Reed. The tissues were badly decomposed, but 
they decided to make inoculations from the spinal cord, which 
seemed to be in a better state of preservation. Accordingly, 
they inoculated two rabbits beneath the dura with a drop of a 
suspension of the spinal cord. One of these died during the 
night from septicaemia and the other remained well. The nega- 
tive results in this case were of little value, owing to the ad- 
vanced post-mortem changes which had taken place in the tissues 
before the inoculation. 

This cow^ was thought by Dr. Childs to be affected with tuber- 
culosis. Mr. Reed made a careful microscopic examination for 
tubercle bacilli, but failed to find them. A rabbit was also in- 
oculated subcutaneously with a piece of the supposed tubercular 
nodule from the lung. It remained well. 

Cow No. 2. — July 6th, I received the brain from a second ani- 
mal which had died with symptoms similar to those manifested 
by cow Ko. 1. Mr. A. B. Kelly, who sent the brain, thought 
the animal had died of rabies, while others w^ere quite as confi- 
dent that the cause of death was something else. This time the 
brain was sent in glycerine and it was received in good condition. 

July 7th, two rabbits, Nos. 43 and 44, were inoculated beneath 
the dura with a drop of the suspension of a bit of this brain in 
bouillon. 

July 29th, rabbit No. 44 was found partially paralyzed at 7 
A.M. 

July 29th^ rabbit No. 43 nervous but otherwise apparently well. 
At 10 A. M. No. 44 was completely paralyzed and No. 43 was 
apparently better, but towards night it became completely par- 
alyzed. They died during the following day. 

The rabbits were carefully examined and cultures were made 
from the various organs, but they remained sterile. 

The lesions, or rather the absence of lesions, were typical of 
rabies, and there is no doubt that this was the cause of the cow's 
death. This positive diagnosis furnished the local health offi- 



16 

cers definite iiifoiiiiation wliich was necessary to enforce the 
proper niana^-enient of the reniainin^^: animals which had been bit- 
ten. These were safely disposed of and no further cases have 
been reported from that vicinity. 

Rahics at CJidthdm. — September 18th, I visited Chatham in com- 
pany with Dr. Kelly to make an investigation into the nature of 
a disease resembling rabies, which had appeared there. From 
Dr. n. B. Ambha-, who had charge of the cases, the following his- 
tory was obtained. 

About the middle of August a black, shaggy dog made its ap- 
pearance in that village. It seemed to be quite friendly, but suc- 
ceeded in biting several dogs, one horse and five cows before he 
disappeared from the community. No one seemed to know where 
this dog came from or where he went to. During the fore part 
of September two dogs died in Chatham of a disease resembling 
rabies. About the middle of September, a cow belonging to 
Mr. H., developed symjitoms of rabies and died. A few days 
later a second one died and the brain was removed by Dr. Ambler. 
At the time of my visit a third cow was sick and a dog had just 
died. The dog was examined and its brain brought to the labor- 
atory. The cow died three days later, but owing to Dr. Ambler's 
absence, was not post-mortemed. From the symptoms mani- 
fest(Hl on Se})tember 18th, there is little doubt of the accuracy 
of the diagnosis. Later, I received the brain from a cow in 
another herd which had been bitten by the same black dog. A 
cow in the adjoining field and the horse which were bitten by 
this dog died with symptoms of rabies. Later, another of the 
bitten dogs came down with the disease and was killed. Mr. H.; 
th(^ owner of the first cows mentioned, tore his hand on th< 
broken horn of the first cow which died. Fearing that he hac 
been inoculated, he took the Pasteur treatment. 

INOCT'LATIOXS FOR DLVGNOSIS. 

Cow No. 2. — This was the second cow to die from the herd be- 
longing to Mr. H. The brain had been kept in glycerine for tw^o 
days. September 19th^ rabbits Nos. 52 and 53 were inoculated 



17 

beneath the dura with a drop of the suspension prepared from 
this brain. 

October 5th, rabbit No. 53 dies of paralytic rabies. 

October 13th, rabbit No. 52 dies of paralytic rabies. 

Dog No. 3. — This dog was carefully examined post-mortem Sep- 
tember ISth. There were no lesions in the thoracic or abdominal 
organs. The brain was slightly congested. It was placed in a 
sterile jar and brought to the laboratory. 

September 19th, rabbits Nos. 50 and 51 were inoculated with a 
suspension of the dog's brain. Rabbit No. 51 was inoculated sub- 
cutaneously; No. 50 beneath the dura. 

October 8th, rabbit No. 50 was partially paralyzed. It died 
during the night. At this writing, November 24th, rabbit No. 51 
exhibits the beginning symptoms of rabies. 

Coic No. 5. — This cow was in another herd, but it died with 
symptoms of rabies. The brain was removed by Dr. Ambler and 
sent to this laboratory. It was received November 29th, late in 
the afternoon, and put on ice. 

September 30th, rabbit No. 54 was inoculated beneath the dura. 

October 16th, rabbit partially paralyzed. 

October 17th, rabbit paralyzed. It dies during the night. 

A second inoculation was made in one case, from rabbit 
No. 53. 

October 9th, rabbit No. 56 was inoculated subdurally with a bit 
of the brain suspension from rabbit No. 53. 

November 19th, rabbit No. 56 w^as paralyzed. 

November 20th, rabbit found dead this morning. 

Unfortunately, the brain of the horse was not secured. As it 
w^as bitten in the nose, and exhibited the symptoms of rabies, 
Dr. Ambler's diagnosis w^as undoubtedly correct. 

The loss caused by this outbreak w^as about ten pet dogs, five 
of which w^ere rabid, five cows and a horse. To this must be 
added the cost of the investigation and the expense of one Pasteur 
treatment. It is not known that this is all, for other animals 
in more distant herds may have been bitten unknown to their 
owners and their death attributed to other causes. Whether this 
2 



18 

was true or not, the people of that community paid a good price 

for the privilofro of allowiiijr do<2:s to run the streets without muz- 
zles. 

Description of Plates. 

I am indebt(H3 to I»iof. S. H. Gage and to Mr. R. C. Reed for 
the i^hotographs of the colonies of the anthrax bacilli. 

Plate VI. Anthrax colonies. 1. Photograph, natural size, of 
an agar plate culture of anthrax bacilli five days old. It shows 
the size and character of the surface colonies especially well. 
2. This is a photograph of a small area of an agar plate under 
slight magnification; culture thirty-foiur hours old, containing 
many colonies, mostly within the medium. It shows the variety 
of forms taken on by the deep colonies. 

Plate VII. Anthrax colony. 1. A photograph of a young 
thirty-four hour surface colony on an agar plate. Slightly mag- 
nified showing the filamentous ramifications of the growth. 2. A 
photograph, under a much higher power, of a portion of the edge 
of the same colony, showing the wavy course of the bundles of 
filaments and also the loops of filaments at the extreme margin 
of the colony. 

Plate VIII. Anthrax: bacilli. 1. Bacilli from a young bouillon 
culture. 2. Bacilli containing spores, also free spores drawn 
from a preparation made from a colony on an agar plate culture 
seven days old. 3. A drawing from a cover-glass preparation 
from the spleen of a cow which died of anthrax. It shows the 
bacilli with an apparent capsule surrounding them Bacilli mag- 
nified about 1,000 diameters. 



PLATE VI. 




-*r- 








^>\- 


-'j. 


> 


s 






' 1 





<^__» ^a- 



Colonies of Anthrax Bacteria. 



PLATE VII. 




V 



/ 




Colony of Anthrax Bacteria. 



PLATE VIII. 



I • \ 

% \ 



/ 










f„.v.^ 



.-D-' 



Anthrax Bacteria. 



SIMON HENRY GAGE, B.S., 

Professor of Microscopy , Histology and Embryology 



ARTICLES. 



Physiology in the Schools. 

Science, Vol. iv, N. S., July lo, 1896. Pp. 29-33. 
Regents' Bulletin, No. 36, Sept., 1896. Pp. 67-71. 

Zoology as a Factor in Mental Culture. 

Science, Vol. iv, N. S., August, 1896. Pp. 207-213. 
Addresses and Proceedings of the National Educational Association, 
35th annual meeting, Buffalo, N. Y. , July, 1896. Pp. 960-967. 

Courses in Histology and Methods of Conducting them. 

Proceedings of the American Microscopical Society, Vol. xviii, 
August, 1896. Pp. 299-310. 

The Purpose of the New York State Science Teachers' Association and 
the Work it hopes to Accomplish. Presidential address before the 
Association, December 29, 1896. 

Science, Vol. v, N. S., March, 1897. Pp. 458-460. 

Notes on the Isolation of Tissue-Elements. 

Proceedings of the American Microscopical Society, 
\ Vol. xix, August, 1897. Pp. 1 79-181. 

Platinum Chlorid for Demonstrating the Fibrils of Striated Muscle. 

Journal of Applied Microscopy, Vol. i, Jan., 1898. Pp. 3-4. 

The Ivife History of the Toad. 

Teacher's Leaflet, No. 9, for use in the Public Schools. Prepared 
by the College of Agriculture, Cornell University, I. P. Roberts, 
Director. Issued under Chapter 67, Laws of New York, 1898. 

April 4, 1898. Pp. 79-98. 

Some Apparatus to Facilitate the Work of the Histological and Embryo- 
logical Laboratory. 
Journal of Applied Microscopy, Vol. i, July, 1898. Pp. 124-131. 



University of the State of New York 



[Extract from Proceedings of 34th University Convocation, June 1896] 

PHYSIOLOGY IN THE SCHOOLS 

BY PROF. SIMON HENRY GAGE, CORNELL UNIVERSITY 

That some knowledge of physiology and hygiene should form a part 
of the education of every human being will, I think, be granted by every 
one who believes that wisdom is safer than ignorance, that ignorance is 
not innocence, and that health and manly and womanly vigor are better 
than nerveless helplessness, and lastly that a knowledge of what the 
Creator pronounced very good is worthy the contemplation and thought 
of man. It is not necessary, however, to enter into an extended defense 
or advocacy of physiology and hygiene in the schools ; they are there 
already by the sanction of the people and their representatives in the 
state legislature, and hence the real question upon which thought and 
discussion should be directed is : how can this study be made to yield 
the best results of which it is capable? The question is apparendy 
easily answered by saying : put good text books in the pupils' hands, and 
supply capable teachers and ample time and facilities. While such an 
answer may seem sufficient, it is in the present state of educational pro- 
gress only hollow sound. What is really needed is a discussion of what 
makes a good text book, how earnest men and women may become 
capable teachers, and how facilities, often inadequate, and time, mostly 
too lim.ited, may be best utilized. 

As to the text books — and there are many of them of various grades 
of excellence — none seem to me to come up to the standard which should 
be striven after. The defects are due either to an author's imperfect 
knowledge of modern physiology or to unfamiliarity with the actual needs 
of the school room. I believe no truly great text book for school, college 
or university can be created out of hand. It must be an evolution, a 
growth in its natural environment, the school room or laboratory where 
the pupils can help the teacher by their questions and difficulties. The 
atmosphere must be one of freedom for learner and teacher. Books writ- 
ten by so-called experts, under the supervision of the scientific department 
of a temperance organization, may, it is -admitted, make the subject very 
exciting and entertaining. That is not what is here advocated, however, 
but a book by a teacher who, on the one hand, is truly an expert in the 
grade of schools where the book is to be used, and on the other, the pos- 
8.25410-0-96-500 



68 UNIVERSITY OF THE STATE OF NEW YORK [JunC 24 

sessor of a knowledge of pliysiology at first hand; that is, he must have a 
knowledge that is recognized as expert by the physiologists of the world, 
then he must write under the supervision of his own conscience, not that 
of an organization. 

It is a truism which can not be repeated too often or too emphatically 
that one can not teach what he himself does not know. Therefore, for 
the teacher of physiology the first requisite is knowledge — knowledge 
from books and of books and monographs, but greater than all book 
learning is knowledge at first hand from nature herself. Such knowledge 
has the precious quality of being alive, of being the leaven to vitaHze the 
whole lump of knowledge obtained from books, and it makes teaching an 
inspiration to both teacher and pupil. Such information can only be ac- 
quired by the expenditure of considerable time and money. A six weeks 
course will hardly accomplish it although I hasten to add that a term at a 
university summer school or at a sea-side laboratory where the instruction 
is given by original investigators will give an uplift and inspiration to an 
earnest teacher that will be of inestimable value. 

But, given the suitable text book and the capable teacher, what shall 
be taught and hoiv shall it be taught ? The question of instruction on 
the effects of alcohol and other narcotics need take but a sentence, for 
the subject has been most ably treated by Pres. Jordan and discussed by 
our superintendent of public instruction, Charles R. Skinner, and others. 
If I rightly understand them, my view corresponds with theirs and with 
those of my honored teacher. Prof. Burt G. Wilder, who is to discuss this 
paper. It is, in a word, to tell the truth, to present fairly both sides of 
the question, so that when the pupils use their own eyes and put the 
statements to the test of experience, as most of them surely will, they may 
feel, as well as know theoretically, that the statements made are true, and 
that the teacher's earnest counsel is reasonable and not merely lurid 
sentiment. 

Another problem will confront the teacher, prepared as indicated above; 
that is the experimentation upon living animals for the purpose of instruc- 
tion in the schools. If he has the knowledge requisite he will know that, 
except a few facts, all which is known of physiology and hygiene has been 
acquired by experimenting upon living animals or living human beings. 
If one stops for a moment to reflect, physiology deals with the functions 
or activities of living organisms, it has to do with the living, not with the 
dead. P'or example, how shall one know whether a plant is good for 
food, whether it is medical or poisonous ? Of two white crystaUine sub- 
stances, like chlorid of sodium (common salt) and chlorid of mercury 



1896] PHYSIOLOGY IN THE SCHOOLS 69 

(corrosive sublimate), bow is one to know that one is almost indispensable 
for health and well being in both man and animals, while the other is 
deadly to both and also to plants ? Certainly the desired information 
can, not be gained by the chemist's test tube or by application to a dead 
animal. How are the splendid results of the modern physiological 
psychology being attained ? Not by dissecting the dead, but by experi- 
mentation upon the living. 

Shall -our schools then become the chambers of horrors described by 
the anti-vivisectionists ? Heaven forbid ! The fundamental facts of 
physiology, those most intelligible and useful for the pupils in the schools, 
can be demonstrated for them and by them without the infliction of pain 
or even discomfort ; and most of them can best be performed by the pupil 
upon himself. Let us take a (ew examples : every child knows that there 
is feeling, as he calls it, in the skin ; he also knows the sensation of cold. 
But he, and indeed most grown people, do not know that the tactile sense 
does not reside in every part of the skin, and so of the temperature sense. 
If some object like the rounded end of a lead pencil or a bit of steel be 
drawn carefully over the skin, say upon the back of the hand, it will be 
felt simply as an object over the tactile areas, while over the temperature 
areas there will be a sensation of cold. Then how easy it is to give the 
real physiology of muscle by having each pupil perform some definite 
movements of the arms. If the muscles are felt during these movements, 
especially if some force is exerted, as in lifting a weight, the changes in 
the form and consistency of the muscles can be easily determined. It 
will also probably be a revelation to the pupil to find that in raising the 
arm, for example, the muscles around the shoulder and at the elbow, 
which by themselves would tend to lower the arm or draw it out- 
ward or inward, also contract. After such an experiment it will not 
be difficult for the pupil to understand that, for the steady and definite 
movements of parts where the joints give considerable freedom, it is 
necessary that there should also be a moderate contraction of antago- 
nistic or opposing muscles which by themselves would cause movements 
in other directions; that is he will gain, by such a simple experiment, the 
ground idea of coordination. 

Perhaps none of the experiments that can be performed are of more 
practical utility than some simple ones in digestion. It is now very easy 
to obtain from the pharmacies the ferment of the stomach or of the pan- 
creas. With these ferments and a glass vessel the pupils can see for 
themselves the solvent action on various forms of food. They can see 
that finely divided food is more quickly dissolved than large masses, and 



70 UNIVERSITY OF THE STATE OF NEW YORK [JunC 24 

hence one of the principal advantages of thorough mastication. So if the 
ferment of the saliva or pancreas were mixed with raw starch and with 
cooked starch it could be seen, with a distinctness never to be forgotten, 
that fire is a powerful ally of the human digestive organs. These experi- 
ments are also instructive because the processes are practically identical 
with those going on in the living body, and thus illustrate the side of 
physiology that may be demonstrated without experimenting on a living 
organism. 

The circulation of the blood is a fact of such fundamental importance 
and so interesting in itself that every student ought to have the privilege 
of viewing it under a microscope. This can be very easily shown in the 
web of a frog's foot or in the external gills of a water salamander like the 
Necturus. If a little ether is |)ut in the water containing the animal it 
will soon become anesthetized without interfering with the circulation. 
The ether will render the perfectly painless observation successful without 
even arousing the apprehensions of the animal, which soon revives when 
placed again in fresh water, and appears as happy as if nothing had 
occurred. The experiment will also illustrate in a striking manner the 
effect of anesthetics on all living beings. A very far-reaching lesson may 
be given by having each i)upil perform some of the simpler experiments 
showing the illusions of the senses. These are so graphic that the dullest 
can not fail to appreciate the fact that the only safe way is to look on all 
sides, to verify appearances by applying as many tests as possible; in 
short, to appreciate the scic7itific method which is so tersely expressed in 
the words of Scripture, "Prove all things; hold fast that which is good." 

So far nothing has been said about anatomy. What place shall it have 
in a course on physiology ? Undoubtedly it is a very great help in the 
study of function to have a good knowledge of the structures performing 
the various functions; but it seems to me that in many books, and in some 
courses in physiology, anatomy is so preponderant that the physiology is 
too much lost sight of — that is, the mechanism is exalted above its 
achievements. Only the grossest functions of the organs, Hke the sup- 
portive action of the bones, can be deduced from the anatomy alone; yet 
it is certainly the fact that, after the physiology has been once determined 
by experiments upon living beings, one can often see how admirably the 
structure of an organ is correlated with the performance of its function. 
For example, the small intestine with its millions of villi projecting like so 
many rootlets into the digested food seems from its very structure destined 
for absorption. 



896] PHYSIOLOGY IN THE SCHOOLS 7 I 



On the other hand, if one studied never so profoundly the structure ot 
the sahvary glands and the pancreas he would never know that they pro- 
duce digestive liquids without experiment, and much less would he know 
that the one is so hmited in its power (sahva) and the other so unlimited 
and powerful as a digester. So I think the microscopic structure or 
histology is liable to be made too much of in elementary books and 
teaching. But, for a few points, the microscope is truly a revealer; e. g. 
the mystery of the current by which the air passages are swept clean of 
dust and other particles is simplified by miscroscopic observation which 
shows the tireless multitude of ciHa with their ceaseless waving. The 
fact is not to be forgotten, however, that even in this case only the 
minute agents and their method of work have been found. Why they 
work is as great a mystery as ever. So also in the study of the circula- 
tion of the blood under the microscope one can see how closely every 
living element is surrounded by the blood capillaries, and how ceaselessly 
the blood corpuscles and the plasma move along, to be followed by a 
never ending fresh supply. 

The purpose of this paper has not been unduly to criticize, but to 
throw out what I hope will prove to be a few helpful suggestions. That 
the efforts of the teachers of this state are earnest and devoted is 
thoroughly believed. That the pupils they instruct are not all acquainted 
with sufficient anatomy and the fundamental principles of physiology is 
also known by the examinations for entrance to the university in which I 
have the honor to teach. From carefully compiled statistics obtained 
during the last few years it is found, however, that the pupils who have 
studied physiology something in the way indicated above have been far 
more successful than those who have merely studied the books." 

a Facts concerning entrance examinations in physiology at Cornell university : the 
great majority of students enter in physiology with the other studies, from regents 
diplomas or from graduation at accredited schools. 

From the reports of the president and dean it was seen that about one in 16 so enter- 
ing could not remain in the university on account of defective scholarship, while of those 
taking entrance examinations at the university one in eight was dropped, showing that 
the more poorly prepared were those who came for examinations including physiology. 
Physiology papers of 195 of the latter class have been looked over with reference to 
determining the quality and kind of preparation made, as taken from answers to 
questions. 

The average standing of the 195 was SZ% 

The average standing of those having dissection and drawing S9% 

The average standing of those having nothing but books ^1% 

The average standing of those self-prepared 59/o 

The average standing of those having previous college training 66%' 



72 UNIVERSITY OF THE STATE OF ^^EW YORK [June 24 1896J 

If in closing I may briefly epitomize, it seems to me, that the best results 
may be obtained in physiologic instruction in the schools as follows: 

1 Text books written by able teachers who know the subject at first 
hand should be provided. 

2 The fact should be emphasized that physiology is very real, and that 
every one may demonstrate upon himself many of the most striking and 
fundamental phenomena; e. g. how quickly will the pupil see that it is 
not necessary to go to the teacher or to the book to find out the 
number of heartbeats and respirations per minute, and that both are 
greatly accelerated by exercise or excitement. 

3 Anatomy should not overshadow physiology, but nice structural 
adaptations whereby specific functions are performed may be pointed out 
and worked upon with great advantage; e. g. the valves in the heart, 
the veins and lymphatics, the forms of the joints, etc. Such knowledge 
is interesting and would aid all. Perhaps also it might arouse some slum- 
bering genius whose future efforts would reveal adaptations now hidden. 

4 The teacher should inspire his pupils with respect for the human 
body and its powers, and with due sympathy for all living things. Lastly 
he should impress upon them with solemn earnestness the fact that their 
physical and moral health is largely in their own hands, and that the 
physical and moral laws of their being are inexorable. 



ZOOLOGY AS A FACTOR IN MENTAL CULTURE, 



BY PROFESSOR SIMON H. GAGE, CORNELL UNIVERSITY, NEW YORK. 

It is not my purpose at the beginning of this address to weary you 
with apologies. I wish simply to pay my tribute of respect and admi- 
ration to the great zoologist and still greater man, David Starr Jor- 
dan, whom I, with you, hoped to hear this day. 

It is with regret that we miss his noble presence and speech, but 
there is also an element of gratification, for he is the fittest possible 
representative the government could have chosen as head of the com- 
mission to investigate the seals in Alaskan waters, and thus to furnish 
the definite information upon the basis of which the two foremost 
nations of the globe can honorably unite in a common cause. 

In the able addresses which have preceded there has been shown 
with great clearness and force how the mind of man, cultivated by 
the disciplines of physics, chemistry and botany, has been made fitter 
to yield the flower and fruitage of noble effort. What then has zool- 
ogy contributed, and what is it likely to contribute when used as one 
of the agents or means in the cultivation of the mind! And as with 
the agriculturist, every factor is of interest which can serve in adding 
to the productiveness of the soil and the quality of what is produced, 
so to us, mind or soul culturalists, every factor in mind culture is of 
vital interest. What then is this zoology which is spoken of as a fac- 
tor in mental culture? As botany in its broad sense includes every- 
thing known and knowable concerning plants, so zoology includes 
everything known and knowable concerning animals; or as botany is 
plant-biology, so zoology is animal-biology, and deals with the form, 
structure, activities, development and classification of animals and 
their economics or relations to each other and to man. And if we 
include Homo sapiens among the animals, it will be seen that if man 
and his doings are a part of zo5logy, zoology, like every other center 
of knowledge and investigation, reaches out to infinity in every direc- 
tion like the rays from a luminous point. 

Although most of us are engaged in the profession whose high aim 
is to aid in starting the young on the road that leads to a truly liberal 
culture, it may perhaps be best, before discussing the part which zool- 
ogy has taken and may take in liberal culture, to understand dis- 



tiiKtly wlial is meant l)y culture or education, and especially by lib- 
eral culture. It seems to me that no one has so well pictured the 
ideal liberal culture or education, or has realized it more surely in a 
iKjble life than the threat zoologist, Huxley. Hear his definition: 
" 'I'hat man, I think, has a liberal education, who has been so trained 
in y(nith that his body is the ready servant of his will, and does with 
ease and pleasure all the work that, as a mechanism, it is capable of; 
whose intellect is a clear, cold, logic engine, with all its parts of 
ecjual strength, and in smooth working order; ready, like a steam 
engine, to be turned to any kind of work, and spin the gossamers as 
well as forge the anchors of the mind; whose mind is stored with a 
knowledge of the great and fundamental truths of nature, and of the 
laws of her operations; one who, not a stunted ascetic, is full of life 
and fire, but whose passions are trained to come to heel by a vigor- 
ous will, the servant of a tender conscience; one who has learned to 
love all beauty, whether of nature or of art, to hate all vileness and 
to respect others as himself." 

What has zoology done to make such culture possible? First and 
foremost, it has aided most powerfully to render free the human mind; 
and without freedom no human soul can enter into the fullness of its 
kingdom; the true glory of this kingdom is not for slaves. 

At the present day no Ci\3sar on the banks of a. Rubicon would 
make his crossing depend upon the omens gained from the flight of 
birds We do not decide upon attending the meetings of the National 
Educational Association by the key in which the wolf howls or the 
quaver of the owl's hoot. We no longer expect our acquaintances to 
imitate the transformations of the companions of Ulysses in the pal- 
ace of Circe, no matter how appropriate such transformations might be. 
No longer do we expect to see birds and beasts produced in the fruits of 
trees or from decayed wood washed up by the sea; nor do we think that 
bees and other insects are generated by decomposing flesh. We know 
that no living thing exists without having received its life from a liv- 
ing parent like itself. Our path is no longer beset with hippogriff, basil- 
isk or dragon, and our high hopes and noble aspirations are no longer 
at the mercy of fairies and genii. Living beings, as well as lifeless 
matter, are subject to law. "Thus far and no farther, " applies to 
them as to the waves of the sea or the rush of a comet. The fairies 
are fled, the genii banished, the mermaid and the remora are cap- 
tured, classified and harmlessly repose as objects of curiosity or in- 
struction in the great museums. Zoological truth has freed us from 
their slavery. 

Now that freedom has come, how shall this subject be made an 
efficient means of mental culture, and what will its fruit be? In the 
first place, as for the subjects, the discussion of which has preceded 
this, Nature herself must be interrogated. The successful student of 

z 



zoology, to quote again the trenchant words of Huxley, "absolutely 
refuses to acknowledge authority as such. For him, skepticism is the 
highest of duties, blind faith the one unpardonable sin. And it can- 
not be otherwise, -for every great advance in natural knowledge has 
involved the absolute rejection of authority, the cherishing of the 
keenest skepticism, the annihilation of the spirit of blind faith; and 
the most ardent votary of science holds his firmest convictions, not 
because the men he most venerates hold them ; not because their 
verity is testified by portents and wonders, but because his experience 
teaches him that whenever he chooses to bring these convictions into 
contact with their primary source, nature, whenever he thinks fit to 
test them by appealing to experiment and to observation, nature will 
confirm them. The man of science has learned to believe in justifi- 
cation, not by faith, but by verification." To complete this first law 
in the Decalogue of the scientific student, it should be followed by 
this from his address upon Descartes' Discourse: "When I say that 
Descartes consecrated doubt, you must remember that it was that sort 
of doubt which Goethe has called 'the active skepticism, whose whole 
aim is to conquer itself;' and not that other sort which is born of 
flippancy and ignorance. But it is impossible to define what is meant 
by scientific doubt better than in Descartes' own words. He says: 
' For all that, I did not imitate the skeptics, who doubt only for doubt- 
ing's sake, and pretend to be always undecided; on the contrary, my 
whole intention was to arrive at certainty, and to dig away the drift 
and the sand until I reached the rock or the clay beneath.' " 

In this spirit, then, of reverent skepticism, of scientific doubt, 
must the teacher of zoology teach and the student learn. And if this 
is the spirit, the teachers are but elder brothers a little farther 
advanced, knowing a few more of the delusions and pitfalls which 
beset the way. Teacher and pupil work together — the one inspired 
by the great works of all his predecessors and by nature herself, and 
he in turn inspiring and helping the student in his efforts. Such 
teachers, such pupils and such inspiring surroundings are described by 
Agassiz in his notable address upon Humboldt: " I was a student at 
Munich. That university had opened under the most brilliant aus- 
pices. Almost every name on the list of professors was also promi- 
nent in some department of science or literature. They were not 
men who taught from text-books or even read lectures made up of 
extracts from original works. They were themselves original investi- 
gators, daily contributing to the sum of human knowledge 
and they were not only our teachers but our friends. . . . We were 
often the companions of their walks, often present at their discussions, 
and when we met for conversation or to give lectures among ourselves, 
as we constantly did, our professors were often among our listeners, 
cheering and stimulating us in all our efforts after independent research. 

3 



My room was our meeting place — bedroom, study, museum, library, 
lecture-room, fencing-room — ^all in one. Students and professors 
used to call it the little academy. ... It was in our little acad- 
emy that Dullinger, the great master in physiology and embryology, 
showed to us, his students, before he had even given them to the 
scientific world, his wonderful preparations exhibiting the vessels of 
the villosities of the alimentary canal; and here he taught us the use 
of the microscope in embryological investigation." 

A rare privilege is it, my fellow-teachers, to be not only teachers, 
but friends to our students. For Agassiz, Humboldt and Cuvier were 
his teachers and friends; for Darwin, were Henslow and Sedgwick. 
Darwin paid his debt of gratitude by never turning a deaf ear to an 
inquirer; and in the "Origin of Species," the " Descent of Man," 
and his other works, he becomes a companion to all of us and takes 
us into his confidence. And Agassiz, what shall we in America not 
say in gratitude to him! Who like him breathed confidence into the 
ardent young men who are now bearing the burden and heat of the 
day in the noble onward march of American science? Who like Agas- 
siz showed us our rich inheritance and inspired this New World to arise 
and take possession of its own? As in holiness, so in literature, so in 
science, it is the living gospel, the living teacher whose inspiring touch 
awakens a spirit that thenceforward can never repose in idleness and 
indifference, but with a noble enthusiasm ever presses onward. 

But, after all, the student comes back in his own mind to the 
serious personal question: How shall I begin; what can I do to gain 
this mental culture? Though the practice is difficult, the theory is 
simple. Observe, study, reflect. But reflection must always follow 
the others or there will result only empty subtleties, while without 
reflection, observation and study are barren and fruitless. Perhaps it 
is unnecessary to add that zoological culture does not come from the 
study of a fourteen weeks' course, prepared by a man who does not 
know the subject at first hand. Learning the names and a little of 
the structure and some of the habits of a few animals is not zoolog- 
ical culture, although it may be a beginning. It is such a beginning 
as learning the Greek alphabet is for the appreciation of the immortal 
epic of Homer and the whole glorious array of Greek art and litera- 
ture. Or it is such a beginning as a knowledge of the multiplication 
table is for mathematics. I have thought sometimes that in our 
enthusiasm for scientific study we have cut and trimmed and selected 
for our fourteen weeks' courses till verily when our students ask us 
for bread we have only a stone to offer. 

Did Darwin think out natural selection and the survival of the fittest, 
or Agassiz the glacial theory in fourteen weeks? Not every pupil can 
spend twenty-eight years or even a tenth of that uj^on a single subject; 
it nevertheless remains true that the mental culture gained by the 

4 



study of zoology will, as with other disciplines, depend first upon 
the original power of the student,* and second upon the time and 
energy devoted to the subject. 

If we take some of the aspects under which zoology may be con- 
sidered, as anatomy, physiology, embryology, classification and eco- 
nomics, and think for a moment what is involved in understanding 
them, perhaps it will be clear why it is so insisted upon that to gain true 
mental culture from zoology time is required. Time for observation 
and study, and, after that, time for reflection, so that there may be 
assimilation and some kind of real comprehension of the subjects 
considered. And 1 take it that in the comprehension gained lies the 
very pith and marrow of whatever culture zoology can give.f 

If anatomy is considered, what a field is there for observation and 
study. This animal machine with its muscles and nerves, digestive 
system and brains, bones and sinews; what nice adaptations they 
show for their various purposes, and to the far seeing eye how many 
bungles and compromises there are too. As compared with the ma- 
chines made by human hands the animal machine is as a printed vol- 
ume to a simple diagram. In these archives are stored the history of 
the past, the ascent or the descent from something different, but like 
the manuscript that has been written over and over after partial era- 
sure, so is this structure clear only in part. Some words have been 
spelled out, but the master to decipher the whole manuscript is yet to 
appear. 

And physiology, that is, the activities of the living anim.al, how 
beautiful they are, how diverse. The mother love that saves the 
world, the mighty thought of Newton or Shakespeare are somehow 

*The original ability of the student is mentioned prominently in this paper because in too many discussions 
upon subjects for culture, teachers and methods, it seems to be assumed that, given a proper subject of study 
a good method and an expert teacher, the desired result will be attained. That is, the material upon which 
the teacher works is tacitly left out of the count, and the teacher is blamed or the method or subject is con- 
demned if cultured men and women are not turned out regardless of their ability. It is a historical fact, how- 
ever, that with good or poor teachers or with no teachers, with good or poor methods or apparently with no 
methods, and with a great variety of subjects, cultured men and women have appeared in all ages. Subject, 
method and teacher are only helps that the student uses according to his ability, and important as the helps 
are, the result depends infinitely more upon the native ability of the student than upon the helps. Subject, 
method and teacher cannot create they can only modify or facilitate development. 

fit is not for a moment claimed that so thorough a stiidy of zoology as is here advocated is the only way to 
obtain useful information concerning the animals upon the earth and in the water. To continue the compari- 
son used in the text, a little knowledge of Greek is useful in studying astronomy and for gaining a better 
appreciation of English words derived from the Greek, but no one claims that such elementary knowledge is 
Greek cnlture. So information concerning edible fishes, mollusks and the ordinary four-footed creatures, a 
knowledge of poisonous snakes, useful and harmful insects, and many other practical and useful things, may 
be known about the animals, but that is not the knowledge that makes culture, although the profounder 
knowledge advocated in this paper and which comes with culture in zoological science includes this which in 
itself is merely practical and useful. Real science or culture gives foundation principles which alone make 
applied or useful knowledge possible in the higher fields. While I believe most thoroughly that zoology for 
culture is a very serious subject and one requiring much time as well as much observation and reflection, it is 
not desired for a moment to discourage the study of zoology, or indeed any subject, for purely utilitarian or 
practical purposes. While indeed such knowledge cannot be called culture, it is often true, as aptly stated by 
Prof. Atkinson in discussing this series of papers, that study for purely utilitarian purposes is very likely to 
lead to the higher kind of study which does make for culture. 



bound up with or in this living matter whose chemistry and physics 
even, still almost wholly elude us. 

Then if we turn to embryology and try to trace with patient care 
the work of the unseen artificer who arranges the apparently simple and 
almost structureless mass of the ovum into heart and brain, muscle 
and nerve, and changes the formless into forms of beauty and power, 
be it butterfly, bird or man, we cannot but receive culture and ui)lift- 
ing; for are we not seeing with our own eyes what is described in the 
sublime words of the Psalmist: "I am fearfully and wonderfully 
made . . . My substance was not hid from thee when I was made 
in secret and curiously wrought in the lowest parts of the earth. 
Thine eyes did see my substance, yet being unperfect: and in thy 
book all my members are written, which in continuance were fash- 
ioned when as yet there was none of them." 

Classification recjuires knowledge of all the above, for it is an ar- 
rangement in due order of the complex beings of the earth from the 
microscopic animalcule to the mighty elephant. For the classifica- 
tion to be successful the mind must see the true relations between all the 
forms, must know their structure and activities and how they were 
curiously wrought and transformed from generation to generation for 
unnumbered ages; in a word, the classifier must know their evolution ; 
or, in the noble words of Agassi z, he must 'become the translator of 
the thoughts of God.' 

And lastly we come to the economics of zoology, that is, the rela- 
tions of the animals to the earth, the plants, to one another and to 
man, and his relations to them. Here one is brought face to face, not 
merely with the glory of living, thinking and acting, but with des- 
tiny; with the solemn fact of life 7L'if/i death, or, more truly stated, 
life /fv death. More are born than can possibly survive even the short 
span granted for the typical life cycle. Indeed, it almost appears as 
if nature in her efforts for life had become a Moloch of death. How 
graphically Darwin has painted the picture of this scene of strife, the 
plant crowding its neighbors to get a little more sunshine or nutri- 
ment, the animals crowding each other and devouring both the plants 
and their fellows^ and then there is the whole foul brood of animal 
parasites. In these latter days we know also that the i)lants are not 
simply content to strive for sunshine and soil in order to elaborate 
from tlie inorganic world the compounds that alone make animal life 
possible, but in turn, a multitude of them, which no man can number 
the bacteria, are devouring the animals, including num. Tiu' knowl- 
edge of this fact, so largely due to the great Pasteur, has given new 
significance to hygiene and a new meaning to cleanliness. 

This death and disease of the animals by means of the jKithogenic 
germs, which also bring disease and death to man, has j^ut a new 
aspect ujion man's relations with the animals. They are indeed his 

6 



kin, and zoological economics may almost be said to have become digni- 
fied into zoo/oi^^icii/ ct/iics. None stands or falls alone. The earth is 
the mother of us all, but she bestows her gifts in a very roundabout 
fashion sometimes. The soil, air and sunshine of Montana may fur- 
nish the conditions for the grass; the old world gave the foundations 
of the life which we uow ^n\([ realized in perfect form in the sturdy 
beeves which grow and fatten on the Montana grass; and finally, 
without a thought of the sun, or tiie soil of Montana, or of the life 
which they made possible, or of the fear and suffering which may 
have resulted, we calmly nourish ourselves on the beefsteak while dis- 
cussing politics, education or the hereafter. But often enough to take 
away undue indifference, the beef or other food may contajn the 
germs of what is death to us, although it may be teeming life to the 
germs; and there is forced upon us a consideration of our relation 
with our living environment. If knowledge and reflection are suffi- 
cient, it does not take a very great philosopher to see that the eco- 
nomical standpoint changes with the change of organism. For the 
plant, the sunshine, the soil and the rain are for it. For the plant- 
eating animal, sunshine, soil and rain are to produce the plant for it. 
And from man's standpoint, all are for him; but if we change the 
standpoint slightly and judge of the workings of a tiger's mind by its 
actions, we would see that sunshine, soil, rain and dew, the plants, 
the fat beeves and even man himself are for the tiger's sole benefit. 

Surely if the other sides of zoology call for imagination, acute ob- 
servation, profound study and cold, logical reasoning for their com- 
prehension, this side demands all these and, in addition, a philosophic 
spirit, that flower of the cultivated human mind. 

I think what has been said will suffice to show that in zoology there 
is a factor of true mental culture; and that by it the philosopher, the 
philanthropist, the man of affairs, is better fitted in his own sphere 
for work and for. leisure. If the student feels that some of the inspi- 
ration to this culture has departed, that the structure, function, em- 
bryology, classification and economics of animals have been almost 
all discovered and determined, and may be found in the ponderous 
volumes and monographs in the great libraries, refer him to Aristotle, 
Darwin, Dana, Gray or Agassiz, or to any of the devoted men and 
women who have been and are trying to find out the truth and to fol- 
low it. They will sa)^: Be of good cheer and not faint-hearted. Look 
and listen with brain as well as with eye and ear, for on every side are 
thrilling sounds whose music no human ear hath heard, and sights 
whose exquisite beauty no human eye hath seen. 

In closing this address I cannot summarize my belief in the culti- 
vating power of the earnest study of zoology better than by saying 
that a profound contemplation of the factors in the problem of animal 
life on the earth will bring out and cultivate the mind. It will show man 

7 



liis true relations to his fellow men and to his lowly fellows, the ani- 
mals. It will not fill the mind with pride, for ultimate knowledge is 
as yet unattainaljle ; it will rather give tiie humility expressed by Job: 
" C^anst thou by searching find out (iod? canst thou find out the Al- 
mighty unto perfection?" or by Newton: " I do not know what I may 
appear to the world; but to myself I seem to have been only a boy 
playing on the seashore and diverting myself in finding now and then 
a smoother pebble or a prettier shell than ordinary, whilst the great 
ocean of truth lay all undiscovered before me." And another from 
one of the foremost physicists of our own day. Sir William Thompson, 
at the jubilee of his appointment as professor of natural philosophy at 
the University of Glasgow: ''One word characterizes the most stren- 
uous efforts for the advancement of science that I have made perse- 
veringly through fifty-five years ; that word is failure ; I know no more of 
electric and magnetic force, or of the relations between ether, elec- 
tricity and ponderable matter, or of chemical affinity, than I knew and 
tried to teach my students of natural philosophy fifty years ago in my 
first session as professor." Yet there is also the pa^an, if not of vic- 
tory, of the consciousness of power that comes to him whose mind has 
been truly cultured by the disciplines brought before you is this series 
of addresses and none has a surer right to that consciousness or with 
a surer voice has expressed it than the zoologist in whose place I stand 
to-day: "The world of thought and the world of action are one in 
essence. In both truth is strength, and folly and selfishness are 
weakness. Say what we may about the limitations of the life of man, 
they are largely self limitations. Hemmed in is human life by the 
force of the fates; but the will of man is one of the fates, and can 
take its place by the side of the rest of them." 



HISTOLOGY AND METHODS OF INSTRUCTION. 



SIMON HENRY GAGE, B. S., Ithaca, N. Y. 



In the preface to the first edition of his Handbook of 
Hjiinan Histology, KoUiker made this significant remark : 
"Medicine has reached a point at which microscopical 
anatomy seems as necessary for a foundation to it as does 
the gross anatomy of the organs and system ; and when a 
profound study of physiology and pathology is impossible 
without an exact knowledge of the finest structural details." 
If this was in the main correct in 1852, when KoUiker first 
wrote it, how much more is it so at the present day when not 
only medicine, but the great science of biology is taking 
such a prominent position in the minds of men. Indeed, in 
its broad aspect medicine is but one of the details of biology, 
and pathology is biological activity perverted by abnormal 
influences and environment ; and since the time when Vir- 
chow's cellular pathology appeared, it has been known that 
the real seat of this perverted activity resides in the micro- 
scopic elements or cells which compose the different organs 
and tissues. Likewise is it known with the greatest cer- 
tainty that all normal activity goes on in the microscopic 
elements making up the tissues ; and finally the germs of a 
new generation, the bearers of heredity by which the past 
reappears in the future, are likewise, in most cases, micro- 
scopic elements. In a word, without the microscope, 
knowledge would be turned back a century and the certainty 
concerning many things in biology today would give place to 
the baseless speculations of the dark ages. 

All teachers of histology have, of course, the same general 
object in view, viz. : to give their pupils a knowledge of the 

* Reprinted from the Transactions of the Nineteenth Annual Meeting of the American 
Microscopical Society, held at Pittsburg, Pa., August 18-20, 1896. 



300 SIMON HENRY GAC.E : 

microscopic structure of the body. Naturally, and of neces- 
sity the way in which different teachers go to work to give 
their pupils this knowledge will depend on the teacher's view 
as to the special end to be attained by the study, and 
secondly on the facilities he has at his disposal. The views 
expressed in this paper may not accord with those of teachers, 
in whom experience and special surroundings have given rise 
to fixed convictions, but it is hoped that some of the younger 
teachers may get suggestions from it that will aid them in 
making the most of their surroundings and facilities ; it is 
hoped also that the subject of histology will be seen by them 
to be vitally important for an understanding of physiology, 
morphology and pathology. It is hoped also that the end of 
histology will not seem to any to be reached when an organ 
or tissue has been fixed, hardened, cut with an expensive 
microtome, stained in brilliant colors and finally embalmed 
in Canada balsam. It is hoped rather that all of this labor 
and pains may be seen to be only to help one see the 
physiologic, morphologic or pathologic processes and rela- 
tions exhibited by the tissue more clearly. If the micro- 
scopic preparations have no such meaning to the student 
then they are no better than so many Chinese puzzles. 

It seems to the writer that the first step in histology is a 
thorough study of the chief instrument used, the microscope. 
The microscope is to aid the eye in seeing what is invisible 
or not satisfactorily visible without it, and unless one knows 
something of the methods of making this helper to vision a 
real helper, much time will be wasted. This is especially 
true of the better forms of instruments. One can use with 
some satisfaction a simple magnifier without instruction or 
much study, but a good modern, compound microscope to be 
of much use must be well understood ; one must know its 
possibilities and limitations. It seems to the writer that 
time is really saved for histology by devoting a few weeks to 
the microscope itself, and to the methods of micrometry, 
drawing, the use of the micro-polariscope, the micro-spectro- 
scope and other accessories. Otherwise one must learn 



IIISTOLOCiY AND METHODS OF INSTRUCTION. 3OI 

these things when he is trying- to make use of them in solving 
some problem in actual work. 

It may naturally be asked what kind of a microscope is 
necessary for the pursuit of modern histology ? While a 
great deal of excellent work may be done with comparatively 
inexpensive apparatus, costing from $25 to $50 and magnify- 
ing from 25 to 500 diameters, one cannot follow out the finer 
details in histology and pathology with such an outfit, and in 
some parts of pathology, where bacteria are involved, one 
would be practically helpless. Some such outfit as the fol- 
lowing seems necessary: Dry objectives of 50 mm. (2 in.), 
16 mm. (I or | in.), and 3 mm. (J in.), and a homogeneous 
immersion of 2 mm. or i^ mm. (1-12 or 1-16 in.) There 
must be some form of substage condenser. This, like the 
objectives, will serve one in proportion to its excellence. 
The stand of the microscope should have a coarse and fine 
adjustment for focusing, the pillar should be flexible, so that 
it may be used in either the vertical or inclined positions, and 
the substage should have a rack and pinion adjustment for 
the substage condenser, and an arrangement for centering- 
Fortunately such an outfit can be had at the present day for 
less than $100, if supplied with ordinary achromatic objec- 
tives ; but the cost is much greater if the best achromatic or 
apochromatic objectives are obtained. It is of the greatest 
advantage also to have a mechanical stage of some sort. 
The removable mechanical stages after the Tolles-Mayall 
pattern are inexpensive and most satisfactory. 

For laboratory work there are two methods, the one 
allowing students to come at their convenience and accom- 
plish as much work as they can or wish to. The other plan 
is to give a medium amount of work, which must be accom- 
plished in a given time. The students are required also to 
come in regular sections. The last way seems to the writer 
the best. Experience has shown that regular sections, in 
which the teacher devotes his whole time to the laboratory, 
yield better results. There is a kind of momentum gained 
in this way that overcomes the inertia of the less energetic, 



302 SIMON HENRY GAGi: : 

and for those that get through with the small amount of work 
that must be assigned for a lesson there is abundant oppor- 
tunity to consult monographs and go more deeply into the 
subject than is required of the average student. To conduct 
a class in this way, however, necessitates abundant, well- 
lighted space, plenty of tables and microscopes, and other 
laboratory facilities. It can be readily seen that laboratory 
work in histology carried on in this way requires an expensive 
plant. If the subject is to be taught at all, this is the only 
economical way, however. To keep a laboratory open all 
day and every day, the teacher being on duty all the time, is 
wasteful and the results unsatisfactory ; as unsatisfactory and 
uneconomical as it would be to divide a Greek class of twenty 
up into five to ten sections for recitation. The last section 
would hardly gain much inspiration from the teacher, and 
such a teacher would not be likely to add much to compara- 
tive philology or anything else. 

In the actual instruction it is believed that there should be 
a combination of lectures and laboratory work. The lectures 
serve to give the students broad and general ideas and the 
relations of the subjects to each other ; that is, they give the 
fundamental facts, principles and relations, which are the 
result of the investigations of the best workers. The best 
books and monographs are referred to and shown, and put at 
the students' disposal. This is done because it is believed that 
every one should take advantage of the gain made by his pre- 
decessors and not try to start at the beginning. Life is too 
short for that, and progress would almost or quite cease if the 
gain made by our predecessors could not be made use of. 
From a long observation it is believed that the student who 
has the power to make independent investigations should 
have these helps, so that he may recognise the attainments of 
others and start from their vantage ground to explore new 
fields. For the student who has not the power for original 
investigation this is the only way to help him. He cannot 
go where there is no path. 

In the second place there should be abundant opportunity 



HISTOLOGY AND METHODS OF INSTRUCTION. 303 

for laboratory work where the student is brought into direct 
contact with the truths of nature in nature herself, and if he 
is an honest man he must work very hard to make out these 
truths, no matter how much help he has been given by 
lectures and books. 

In the laboratory work each student should learn and 
practice all the principal methods. A preparation made by 
the student himself from getting the tissue until it is mounted 
and labeled means something to him ; it is connected in a very 
definite way with the organ or part in the animal. He also 
gains skill in manipulation, and without skill in manipulation 
no real progress can be made in any science. Exact notes, 
with dates and drawings, are necessary to avoid vagueness 
and to prevent the student from deceiving himself in the 
belief that he has gained certain knowledge when he has not. 
These notes and drawings, and the students' specimens, duly 
labeled and catalogued, should be most conscientiously 
scrutinised by the teacher. They give him an opportunity 
that nothing else can to help the student by correcting 
erroneous conclusions and by aiding him in gaining skill in 
manipulation. It may well be asked, however, if it is possible 
to get a class through the tissues and organs of the animal 
body by having each student perform all the operations for 
himself. It is admitted that the time necessary would be 
too long, and for most of the students much time would be 
unnecessarily used in mere mechanical operations. The 
plan advocated is to have each student learn all the funda- 
mental processes in modern histology, and learn them by 
repeated operations, but the loss of time by mere repetition 
after the processes have been mastered may be avoided with- 
out injury by furnishing most of the preparations either 
already cut or imbedded ready for cutting. It is believed 
that every preparation, with rare exceptions, should be in 
part at least, the work of the student. If then for these 
partly prepared preparations full data are given concerning 
the methods used the student will have no trouble in making 
the proper connection mentioned above when he performed 



304 SI.MOX IIENRV C.AC.K : 

all the work himself. It is believed that the ground can be 
covered in this way and it is known from experience and 
observation that the intellectual independence gained by the 
personal work of each student will repay all trouble on the 
part of the teacher — for it is more trouble to guide the 
student than for the teacher to do the work himself. The 
student will gain also the ])ower to use the work of others, 
and to judge it at its true value as he could in no other 
way. 

In the actual work carried on by the writer, lectures are 
given to the entire class, and, then, for the laboratory work 
sections of about fifteen are taken for not less than two hours 
at a time. If a period of less time were given, so much of 
it would be used in getting ready to work and in clearing up 
that not enough actual, productive work could be done to 
repay the effort. Each student is given the use of a locker ; 
each one prepares nearly all of the reagents used by him, and 
each one learns the methods of isolation, of sectioning by the 
collodion and by the parafifin method, both with simple and 
inexpensive and by the best modern apparatus ; and all have 
opportunity to see the method of making frozen sections, so 
largely used in diagnosis in pathological work. There is 
a large cabinet of specimens illustrating microscopy, 
histology and embryology, made and labeled and catalogued 
with all possible care, to serve as models for the students and 
for reference. The cabinet has been found very valuable for 
stimulating independent work. If one sees only figures of 
microscopic objects he may feel that to make actual speci- 
mens which shall show the objects with equal clearness 
would be impossible for a student, but if such specimens 
are at his disposal he is stimulated and encouraged to 
prepare similar ones for himself. He soon learns also, in 
studying actual specimens, that many of the figures in the 
books are composites, — made by combining the best features 
of several preparations. 

For convenience, the animal body is divided into the fol- 
lowing groups of tissues and organs. The arrangement is 



HISTOLOC.V AND METHODS OF INSTRUCTION". 305 

more or less logical also on embryologic, physiologic and 
morphologic grounds : 

1. Epithelia, including endothelia. 

2. Connective and supporting tissue (Areolar tissue, ten- 
don, ligament, bone, cartilage, etc.). 

3. The muscular system. 

4. Blood and lymph, i. c, the fluids of the body and 
their corpuscles. 

5. The blood and lymph vascular system. 
The digestive system. 
The respiratory system. 
The genito-urinary system. 
The skin and its appendages. 

10. The nervous system and the organs of sense. 



In teaching, the following guiding principles have been 
followed : 

1. It has always seemed to the writer that one of the 
most important steps in the knowledge of the structure of 
the tissues and organs is a thorough knowledge of the gross 
anatomy. The histologist must, first of all, be a thorough 
naked-eye anatomist. He must also be a physiologist, and 
he will naturally become an embryologist, for without the 
knowledge that embryology gives, the adult structure is fre- 
quently unintelligible, and without physiology, structures are, 
in many cases, meaningless. The wise histologist is then a 
physiologist, an embryologist and an anatomist. From the 
naked-eye appearances he passes as necessity requires, from 
the contemplation of organs and tissues, first to a low power 
and then for the finer and finest structural details to the 
highest powers available. But he never loses sight of the 
fact that the details alone are far less intelligible than when 
they are correlated with the organ or tissue to which they 
belong. 

2. It seems so natural and logical in teaching the funda- 
mental facts concerning the morphology and structure of the 
body to refer to the mode of development, that for several 



306 SIMON HENRV GAGE : 

years the students have not only been taught in lectures from 
the embryological standpoint, but each student in the begin- 
ning has put into his hands, in the laboratory, preparations of 
the ovarian ovum to represent not only a typical cell, but the 
fundamental fact that the complex body of the largest animal 
is derived from the ovum. Then preparations of the blastula 
with a single layer, representing in a general way a simple 
epithelium, are studied, and then the blastula with a wall 
several cells thick, representing in general a stratified epithe- 
lium. Other preparations are studied, showing clearly the 
mode of formation of the axon or notochord from the ento- 
derm, and of the neuron or central nervous axis from the 
ectoderm. After studying these preparations it means some- 
thing to the student when he reads or hears in lectures that a 
given tissue or organ is derived from one or the other of the 
germ layers.^'' 

3. Each tissue is studied fresh, so that correct notions 
may be gained of the natural appearance of the organs and 
tissues and their structural elements unaffected by reagents. 

4. Every organ and tissue is studied alive, so far as pos- 
sible, in order that the function and the structure that per- 
forms the function may be seen at the same time and the two 
properly associated. Students who see only prepared speci- 
mens can hardly avoid gaining the impression that the gor- 
geous red, blue and purple colors belong to the natural 
tissues, and would be so found in dissecting an animal. 
Indeed the histologist who studies his subject profoundly 
looks upon the adjuncts of stain, etc., as necessary evils at 
best, and he never feels quite sure that the appearances seen 
in these much-stained and manipulated specimens are true 
expressions of nature, or whether they are structures of his 
own creation (artifacts), until he has seen the appearances in 
the living substance, where the pitfalls of color and Canada 



* The preparations used in my laboratory are the small ovarian ova found in the ovary 
of a young Avtblystoma, or those left after spawning. All sizes are seen, giving also a hint 
that the different sizes mean the different crops of eggs, so to speak, that will reach matur- 
ity. The segmenting ova of Antblystoma are admirable for showing the blastula, and the 
for-nation of notochord and nervous system. 



IIISTOLOCV AND METHODS OF INSTRUCTION. 307 

balsam have no place. (See the preface to Foster and Lang- 
Icy s Practical Physiology.) 

5. All glands should be studied in various phases of their 
activity and repose, so that the structural features present in 
each phase may be associated with the functional condition. 
In a word it is greatly to the advantage of the student if the 
histology he studies is truly "Physiological Histology." 

6. The student will gain a truer insight into the structure 
of the body if he understands at the beginning that every 
organ and every tissue as it is found in the body is really a 
complex, that is, it is composed of several tissues and of 
ground substance. For example, muscle is composed not 
only of the characteristic structural elements, the muscle 
fibers or cells, but mingled with these are connective tissue 
and blood vessels, and nerves are abundant. Even in 
epithelium the cells are not the whole of the tissue, for there 
is always present the cell cement uniting the cells. In con- 
nective tissue, the characteristic elements or cells, so promi- 
nent in this tissue in embryonic life, are so far pushed into 
the back-ground by the intercellular or groun€ substance, 
that the tissue is actually characterised, not by the cells, but 
by the ground substance. Thus we speak of cartilage, liga- 
ment and bone and the other members of the connective 
tissue group, having in mind almost altogether the inter- 
cellular substance, and not the cellular elements. 

7. Of necessity, as well as preferably, every general course 
in histology must be a course in comparative histology, as 
structural details are not all shown with equal clearness in 
any one form and not obtainable at all or only with difificulty 
in some. For example, hair is not found below the mammals, 
and the fibrin network in the blood and lymph is far more 
satisfactory in man and the other mammals than in Amphibia 
and fishes, while nucleated red blood corpuscles are found 
with difficulty in mammals, while they are normal in non- 
mammals. As the course is then to be really one in com- 
parative histology, the fact should be distinctly expressed, 
and the student not left to infer that a structural detail seen 



308 SIMON IIENRV (;age : 

in one animal would be found exactly similar in all others. 
On the other hand, it should be most emphatically brought 
out that while there is unity in type there is viueh diversity 
in detail. This can be demonstrated by each student in 
comparing the striated muscle of mammals and Amphibia ; or 
to take nearly related forms, the liganientiini nuchcc of the ox 
and other grazing forms is almost purely elastic tissue, while 
in the cat and man it is largely white fibrous tissue, and far 
less prominent. This point has been insisted upon because 
if any one looks through the pages of any work on histology, 
even though "human histology" may be printed on the title 
page, he will find it really a comparative histology, with the 
comparisons left out. That is, there will be figures of struc- 
tures from widely differing animals to illustrate the structure 
of the different tissues, and frequently even the accompany- 
ing legend or explanation gives no hint that the tissue 
figured is not from man. Naturally the student concludes 
that the tissues are exactly alike in all animals. If on the 
other hand homologous parts from different animals are 
carefully coiflpared many of them will show marked differences 
in detail, although the type of structure is unmistakable. 

8. If it is necessary to keep in mind the differences in 
anatomic details in different animals, so is it equally 
important to know and to learn to demonstrate differences 
in structural detail of the same tissue or organ in the same 
animal in different phases of activity, in vigorous youth and 
in senile decay. Indeed, the differences in structural appear- 
ance of the pancreas, for example, before and after secretion, 
is as great as the apparent structural differences in quite 
widely differing forms. It is, therefore, necessary for a com- 
plete understanding of structural appearances to keep physi- 
ology constantly in mind ; and as so few animals are in 
perfect health, possible pathologic variations from the normal 
appearance must be looked out for, otherwise one might in a 
limited number of observations decide that merely temporary 
or even abnormal structural appearances were characteristic 
of the animal under investigation. 



HISTOLOGY AND METHODS OF INSTRUCTION. 309 

The above statements, while they apply to the study of 
histology in general, have special reference in the main to 
elementary courses, where the students are introduced to the 
subject and are naturally imbibing the spirit of the study. 

The course outlined above would require considerable 
time. It could not be satisfactorily gone over in less than 
one college year in a course consisting of two lectures per 
week and three laboratory periods of two and one-half hours 
each. 

For research in this, as in any other subject, there must 
be great liberty as well as good facilities for work and experi- 
mentation. Mistakes will be made and time apparently 
wasted ; but the mistakes and the apparent waste of time are 
a part of the **dead work" that must be done by all those 
who aspire to perform truly advanced work and to add to the 
sum of human knowledge. 

Besides the numerous addresses and special papers that 
have appeared the student and teacher will find the six 
books named below especially helpful and inspiring : 

An American Text Book of Physiology. Edited by Wm. 
H. Howell, of Johns Hopkins. The writers besides the 
editor are : H. P. Bowditch, J. G. Curtis, H. H. Donald- 
son, F. S. Lee, W. P. Lombard, G. Lusk, W. T. Porter, 
E. T. Reichert and H. Sewall. Philadelphia. 1896. 

Bernard, Claude, Cours de physiologie generale du Museum 
d'histoire Naturelle. Lemons sur les phenomenes de la vie 
communs aux animaux et aux vegetaux, two vols. Paris. 
1878-1879. 

Foster, M. — A text book of Physiology (1877 to 1896). 
London and New York. The sixth edition contains much 
histology. All the editions correlate structure and function 
in an admirable way. 

Metchnikoff, Elias — Lectures on the comparative patho- 
logy of inflammation delivered at the Pasteur Institute in 
1 89 1. Translated from the French by F. A. and E. H. 
Starling, London. 1893. 



310 HISTOLOGY AXT) METHODS OF INSTRUCTION. 

Hertwig, O. — The Cell ; Outlines of General Anatomy 
and Physiology. Translated and edited by M. and H. J. 
Campbell. London and New York. 1895. 

Wilson, K. B. — The Cell in Development and Inheritance. 
Columbia University Series IV. New York and London. 
1896. 

For an excellent article on "The Importance of Technical 
Instruction in our Medical College Laboratories," see Dr. A. 
P. Ohlmacher, New York Medical Record, Vol. LXIIL, 
March 21, 1896, p. 374. 

P'^or a view that all microscopical and bacteriological 
knowledge is of no assistance in either medicine or biology, 
see Dr. Charles G. Kuhlman, in the St. Louis Medical and 
Surgical Journal, Vol. LXX. April, 1896, p. 201. 



Addendum : Those who have the planning and execution of 
laboratory courses in histology will find many suggestions and 
much help in a paper by L. F. Barker and C. R. Bardeen in the 
Jolnis Hopkins Hospital Bulletin for May-June, 1896. It is en- 
titled : " An outline of the course in Normal Histology and Micro- 
scopic Anatomy," and represents the course followed in the Johns 
Hopkins Medical School for the year 1895- 1896. 



THE PURPOSE OF THE NEW YORK STATE SCIENCE 

TEACHERS' ASSOCIATION AND THE WORK 

IT HOPES TO ACCOMPLISH. 



Bv Simon H. Gage. 
From Science, March ig, fSg']. Pp. 4^8-460. 



It is a source of congratulation that the Science Teachers of the 
Empire State are no longer to remain scattered and unorganized, but by 
association are to gain the encouragement and enthusiasm which united 
effort brings. That enthusiasm and efficiency are promoted by such 
organization of science teachers is abundantly attested by the results 
gained through the efforts of the American Societ}- of Naturalists, and 
the teachers of Illinois, Colorado, California, and of other sections. 

An association like this makes it easier for the college and for the 
secondary school teacher to come together and talk over matters of 
mutual interest and concern. In these friendly consultations and discus- 
sions there will be a chance of finding out something of what is most 
desirable and what is practicable and possible in the schools each repre- 
sents. And in these discussions it will not be possible to forget the 
children in the elementary schools, the great majority of whom come 
neither under the training of the high school nor of the college, but 
must be content to get the best they can from the elementary schools to 
equip them for the struggle of life which stands so near them. What 
help have these a right to ask from the high school and the college ? 
And then the great world of thought and action whose mighty stream, 
sooner or later, draws all into it, what does it demand ? It is, after all, 
the final court which tries all alike, and puts each to the test whether he 
be a college graduate, high school graduate, pupil of an elementary 
school or one who has only his heriditary endowment of mother wit. 

The signs of the times all indicate that the high school teacher is to 
be at least a college graduate, and the elementary school teacher a high 
school graduate. If this is true, while the college has but few under its 
immediate instruction it determines the character of the high school, 
and in turn the high school determines the character of the elementary 



school. The college is then the intellectual «(nide of the land. Is it and 
has it always been a wise and syni])athetic .y^uide ? 

If we C()in])are (^ur times with those of 500 or even icx) years ago 
there will he found an immense difference, and science is largely respon- 
sible for this difference. Whether we approve or not, things are not as 
they once were ; whether we designate the change as one of progress or 
decline, there has been change, the world is not what it once was. The 
modern citizen must adapt himself to these changes or be ground to 
powder in the struggle for existence or for preeminence. The profes- 
sional man, if he is a physician, is a criminal if he does not know and 
apply the science bearing u]X)n his profession ; and the lawyer who has 
only the knowledge that the Middle Ages might have given him is soon 
eliminated from the race. It is with hesitation that I speak of the 
clergyman, but if he misre])resents nature which he might know, and to 
which he so often reverts for illustration, how can he expect unhesitating 
acceptance of his words concerning the profound m3'steries that all, 
even the most favored, must 'now see as through a glass darkly ?' The 
artisan, farmer and business man cannot live as did their forefathers ; 
and so from the professions, from all the people, there comes an appeal 
so earnest, so pressing, that we cannot choose but hear. If they suffer 
for lack of knowledge we must do our best to supply the knowledge. We 
should give them the science we possess, show them the way it is gained, 
and how much there is yet to be gained, and thus make every boy and girl, 
and through them every man and woman, in our great State an observer or 
original investigator in science. This can come about onl}^ when real sci- 
ence is taught and studied , only when baseless authority and the fog of opin- 
ion are brushed aside and the pupils in the schools are brought in direct 
contact with nature, and there learn to appreciate and apply the scientific 
method so admirably stated b}- St. Paul : "Prove all things, hold fast 
that which is good." 

Our .\ssociation ought not and cannot stop with the work of the 
high school. From the elementary schools most pupils must enter the 
labors of life ; they make the bulk of the State, and a noble patriotism 
should lead us to do all we can for them. On the principle of self- 
preservation also such help is wise, for the work of high school and col- 
lege alike have their foundations laid in the elementary school. x\s the 
college reaches down to help and encourage the high school, so should 
the high school reach down and help and encourage the elementary 
school, and thus will it come aljout that ever}' child in the State will be 
brought into direct contact with nature, where he can experience for 
himself her inspiring and uplifting sympathy. 

If this program is to be carried out the college must train its stu- 
dents and prepare them to take the true science, science at first hand into 
the high school, and banish therefrom anything savoring of sham. 
Then the college must honor its graduates by accepting for entrance the 
work in science of the high school on ecjual terms with other subjects 



tniight by its g^raduates. To bring this about, I take it, is one of the 
duties of this Association. Thanks to the work of the American Society 
of Naturalists, and to the many able men and women who have worked 
for the same end, science work done in the high school is at the present 
moment recognized by a considerable number of colleges. See Science, 
December 25, 1S96. 

It is discouraging, almost prohibitive, for the college to say to the 
secondary school, when you reach the proper degree of excellence in 
your science Avork, the college will consider 3^our appeal for recognition, 
Wh}' cannot the college state fairly and explicitly exactly what the stand- 
ard of excellence should be ? and with equal fairness and justice say, when 
your students reach this standard we will accept them for entrance on the 
same terms as for other good preparatory work. No true friend of science 
would ask the college to admit students with a training in science 
inferior to that required in the older disciplines. Let the college make 
its standard as high as it will, but let it recognize the work that comes 
up to its standard, and thereby honor its own graduates who have so 
worthily brought the work of their pupils up to the high standard. 
Such recognition would put science on a fair footing wath the other 
disciplines. It would encourage and inspire the teacher in the secondary 
schools and help to give his work a dignity and importance in the eyes 
of his pupils and colleagues which it can never have if it is not honored 
by the college. Men still respect and honor what the college approves, 
and it is a part of our work to see to it that the college puts the seal of 
its approval on sound learning in science as w-ell as on that of the 
other disciplines which it accepts for entrance to its halls. 

It seems to me the way before us is clear. Changed conditions have 
brought new needs, needs that knowledge of science can alone supply. 
We should do our best to help our day and generation, and in giving it 
the help of science and the sympathy of nature I feel confident that we 
are doing right in every way. Science, taught as every true teacher will 
teach it, will help the students to gain an insight into nature, will bring 
them face to face with reality, with law and order, and certainly will 
form at least one element in a noble education. It will emphasize the 
old lesson that power over nature comes only by obedience to her, and 
by this obedience, which can come only through understanding, disci- 
pline is gained. By action in accordance with law which is understood, 
and by reflection comes culture. With this discipline and culture come 
large sympathies and a wide outlook upon the universe. There comes 
also the consciousness that, w^hile the current of life and law is irresisti- 
ble, man is a part of the mighty current and his will has its due share in 
directing it. 



(Reprinted from the Transactions of the American Microscopical Society, rSgy.) 



NOTES ON THE ISOLATION OF THE TISSUE 
ELEMENTS. 



SIMON H. GAGE, Ithaca, N. Y. 



In the present period when the technique of section cut- 
ting has become so perfect that many of the cells of the body- 
may be cut into several pieces, there is some danger of losing 
sight of the actual conformation of the cells as wholes. Cer- 
tainly, as teachers of histology, it is desirable for us to show 
our students as many of the cells or tissue elements as possi- 
ble so that they may realise that the teacher is discussing, 
real, tangible entities when he speaks of epithelial cells, muscle 
cells or brain cells, and the like. Furthermore, the student 
should gain an allround conception, so to speak, and this notion 
of the tissue elements is gained by the student only when he 
can see all around the structures ; this feat is easily accom- 
plished in the isolated cells by causing them to roll over with 
a little pressure on the cover-glass. 

In dissociating, the aim is to separate the tissue elements 
from one another, the cells and all their minute processes 
being preserved in their true form. In order to do this the 
cell-cement, or intercellular substance, must be dissolved or 
softened. The perfect dissociator then, must harden the 
tissue elements and soften the substance which holds them 
together. Many excellent dissociators have been described. 
None will serve equally well for all tissues, and there may be 
a ' ' best dissociator " for each animal ; it seemed worth while, 
however, to present a note upon the results of an extended 
series of experiments to discover if possible the general and 
underlying principles. 



l8o SIMON II. GAGE : 

'I'hc general principles seem to be these : Any agent 
wJiich acts as a good hardening and fixing medium for a tissue 
will also serve for a dissociating substance if sufficiently 
ill In ted and allowed to act only a sJiort time. So far as 
experiments have gone it was found that if the fixer suitable 
for a tissue were diluted ten times and allowed to act from 
two hours to two days, good results were obtained in isolating. 
It was further found that if the diluting substance used were 
normal salt solution (water looo cc, common salt 6 grams,) 
the results were, perhaps, more satisfactory. This use of 
normal salt solution was suggested from the fact that it tends 
to leave the tissues without change, and the diffusion cur- 
rents are not so severe as when water alone is used for 
dilution. 

For the epithelia of mucous and serous surfaces nothing 
was found so satisfactory for all animals as formaldehyde in 
normal salt solution. The strength used was 2 cc. in a liter 
of normal salt solution. For many epithelia the isolation 
may be considered sufficient in one to two hours ; good pre- 
parations from the same may be got after a day or two. This 
dissociator is excellent for obtaining the ciliated cells of the 
brain ventricles. And in experimenting with it for that pur- 
pose it was found that the nerve cells of the cerebral cortex 
were most satisfactorily isolated also. For one who has only 
seen nerve cells in sections it would be a revelation to see the 
processes as shown in such isolation preparations, and then 
if the cells be made to roll over, it will be seen that the cells 
have processes projecting from every side. 

No method of studying the isolated elements has been so 
successful as scraping off a small mass and mounting on a 
slide in the dissociating medium, and then for the more com- 
plete separation the cover-glass is gently hammered over the 
mass of cells. The mechanical jarring separates the cells 
without tearing them, and often two or more cells are just 
sufficiently separated to show their mutual relation. It is 
sometimes advantageous to add a little eosin solution to the 



ISOLATION OF THE TISSUE ELEMENTS. l8l 

mass of cells before mounting or after, but as the mounting 
medium, if the dissociator is used, is of such different refrac- 
tive index, all the structural details come out without stains; 
and it is worth while to let the student see that histological 
structure can be seen under the microscope without gorgeous 
stains. He will then know, which I fear is not always the 
case now, that the cells are not red and purple in the living 
body. 

If in examining preparations mounted only in the disso- 
ciator one should meet with something that he was extremely 
desirous of preserving, the slide may be laid flat and a drop 
of glycerin put at the edge of the cover. It wilFpartly diffuse 
and also as the dissociator evaporates it will run in by capil- 
larity and in a few days the preparation will be mounted in 
glycerin. It may then be sealed with shellac or other cement 
and will last a reasonable length of time, that is, till one 
naturally gets a better preparation to take its place. 

If one wishes to have the cells stained for the permanent 
preparations, instead of using glycerin alone, as just described, 
the following mixture will be found excellent : Glycerin, 
85 CO.; alum carmine, 7j c.c; eosin, J per cent, aqueous 
solution, 7^ c.c. This may be put at the edge of the cover 
as for the glycerin, or preferably it should be mixed with 
the cells before putting on the cover-glass. The alum 
carmine stains the nuclei and the eosin the cell body. 



[Reprinted from the JOURNAL OF APPLIED MICROSCOPY, VoL I, No. 1, p. 3.] 



Platinum Chlorid for Demon- 
strating the Fibrils of Striated 
Muscle. 

Simon Henry Gage. 

Since the great monograph of Bow- 
man* on the structure of muscle, the 
fundamental facts presented by him still 
are the ones represented In the best 
modern text-books, although in some de- 
tails there has of course been consider- 
able modification. 

If one consults this monograph, or a 
later monograph or book on the histology 
of muscle, one can but be impressed 
with the fact that there is a great pre- 
ponderance of discussion upon the struc- 
ture in lower forms, insects, fishes, and 
amphibia. This is true, although the 
book may be entitled " Human Histol- 
ogy." 

If one seeks for methods to demon- 
strate the various appearances figured 
and described, it will be found that it 
frequently requires days, weeks, or even 
months, to get the preparations ready 
for study. For the Investigator who is 
carrying on several pieces of work at 
the same time, this may not be a draw- 
back; but in the case of the teacher with 
classes having but a limited time for 
work, he must prepare material a long 
time in advance, and thus the students 
be deprived of the actual personal expe- 
rience which they can alone obtain by 
taking every step themselves, or some 
method must be devised which shall be 
both certain and rapid. Owing to the 
constant effort of laboratory teachers, 
every year adds to the list of such rapid 
and excellent methods. In my own field, 
where mammalian histology and embry- 
ology are of principal importance for my 
laboratory students, there is a constant 
effort to find methods applicable to such 
animals in the published accounts of 
others and by personal experiments. So 
much effort is made because, while the 
type may be the same in different ani- 
mals, the details of structure are often 
markedly different in the different 
forms, and it seems hardly fair to stu- 
dents to show them only insect muscle, 
for example, and lead them to assume 
that the appearances are exactly the 
same in mammals. 

In studying the tissues of animals, one 
of the greatest needs is some means of 
Isolating the cells or structural elements 
so that details of form and structure 
may be made out with certainty, and the 
confusion arising from overlying or un- 
derlying cells avoided. While making a 
series of experiments on different media 
for dissociation. It was found that plati- 



•Phil. Trans. 1840-41, pp. 467-501, 4 plates. 



num chlorid in a one-tenth per cent, 
aqueous solution (platinum chlorid 1 
gram, water lOOOcc), acting from two to 
twenty-four hours, gave most beautiful 
preparations of the longitudinal stria- 
tion and the fibrils of mammalian 
muscle. In many cases, If the teasing 
was thorough, the fibers appeared like a 
skein of thread, and frequently the fib- 
rils were detached from the bundle, thus 
affording opportunity for their special 
study. 

The method has been applied to mam- 
mals (man, horse, dog, cat, sheep, rab- 
bit, guinea pig), amphibia, fishes, in- 
se<;ts, and cray-fish. It is well adapted 
to all, but more especially to the mam- 
malian muscle, where the demonstration 
of fibrils and longitudinal striation is 
more difficult or requires more time than 
in the lower forms. t 

In practice about five times as much 
liquid is taken as muscle, and the piece 
of muscle should not be larger than one's 
little finger. Very small pieces should 
be worked on within a few hours, two to 
five, while larger pieces may wait longer. 
That is there is too great hardening of 
the tissue if the solution acts on a small 
mass for a considerable time. For a 
simple, temporary demonstration a shred 
or fascicle is removed from the mass of 
muscle and teased out in water or in 
some of the dissociating liquid, but if 
one wishes to demonstrate the finest de- 
tails, and to see with clearness the vari- 
ous discs described in modern works he 
should proceed as follows: A small 
fascicle is teased very thoroughly in a 
drop of water. One may use a tripod 
magnifier to make sure that the teasing 
is thorough. The water is drained off and 
two or three drops of a two per cent, 
solution of erythrosin in fifty per cent, 
alcohol Is added and left for five minutes; 
or one may use a two per cent, aqueouo 
Bolution of eosin. Either of these agents 
will stain the parts of the fibrils which 
appear dark in unstained preparations, 

tMany good dlssoclators for special pur- 
poses have been devised, but so far as I 
know there has been no generalization of 
the fundamental principles which would 
serve a^ a guide In case one had not access 
to the special liquid described. In a series 
of experiments to see If there was not some 
underlying principle, the writer came to the 
conclusion that, while a given detail of 
structure or a given kind of cells might be 
more clearly demonstrated by one method 
than by another, yet the generalization 
seemed Justified that " Any medium which 
fixes a tissue well may be used to isolate 
Its structural elements If employed in 
a proper dilution (about one-tenth the 
streijg.n used In fixing) and allowed to act 
only a limited time— two to twenty-four 
hours. See " Proceedings of the Amer. 
Micr. Sec. for 1897.") It was In this series 
of experiments, made three years ago, that 
the special excellence of platinum chlorid 
for demonstrating the longtltudlnal stria- 
tion and fibrils of muscle was discovered. 



[Reprinted from the JOURNAL OF APPLIED MICROSCOPY, VoL I, No. 1, p. 3.] 



but the erythrosin is preferable. After 
five minutes the stain is poured off care- 
fully, and the fibers are washed with 
several drops of water and then dehy- 
drated with 95 per cent, or stronger, al- 
cohol (two or three pipettes full will suf- 
fice). A drop of clearer (carbol-turpen- 
tine or carbol-xylene) is added after 
pouring off the alcohol, and the fibers 
are carefully separated with needles, and 
after pouring off the clearer a cover 
spread with balsam is put over them. If 
the preparation is successful, and most 



of them are, one gets a very satisfactory 
view of the minute structure as well as 
of the general structure, as some of the 
fibers will show with perfection the 
transverse striae, others the longitudi- 
nal striae and the Isolated fibrils. For 
seeing the minute details, a good homo- 
geneous immersion objective and careful 
lighting are necessary. 

If a muscle is found to give good pre- 
parations it may be preserved for at 
least three years in fifty per cent, alco- 
hol and give good results. 



TEACHER'S LEAFLETS. no 9 

FOR USE IN THE PUBLIC SCHOOLS. APRIL 4 1898. 

PRKPARED KY 



THE COLLEGE OF AGRICULTURE, 
CORNELL UNIVERSITY. 

ITHACA, N. Y. 

Issued under Chapter 67 
l,aws of 189S. 

I. P. ROBERTS, DiKKCTOR. 

The Life History of the Toad. 

BY SIMON HENRY GAGE.* 

The life-history of the common or warty toad has been selected 
for various reasons as the subject of a leaflet in nature study : 
This history is exceedingly interesting. The marvelous changes 
passed through in growing from an egg to a toad are so rapid 
that they may all be seen during a single spring term of school. 
Toads are found everywhere in New York, and nearly every- 
where in the world ; it is easy, therefore, to get abundant 
material for study. This animal is such a good friend to the 
farmer, the gardener, the fruit grower, the florist and the stock 
raiser that every man and woman, every boy and girl ought to 
know something about it, and thus learn to appreciate their 
lowly helper. 

And finally, it is hoped and sincerely believed that the feeling 
of repugnance and dislike, and the consequent cruelty to toads, 
will disappear when the children know something about their 
wonderful changes in form, structure and habits, and how harm- 
less and helpful they are. Then who that knows of the chances, 
the dangers and struggles in the life of the toad, can help a feel- 
ing of sympathy ; for after all, how like our human life it is. 



*It was the desire of the author to tell the story of this leaflet in pic- 
tures as well as in words, and he wishes to express his appreciation of the 
enthusiasm and ability with which the illustrations were executed by Mr. 
C.W. Furlong. 



8o 

Where sympathy is, cruelty is impossible, and one comes to feel 
the spirit of these beautiful lines from Coleridge's "Ancient 
Mariner : ' ' 

" He prayeth best 7L'ho loveth best 

All I hi figs both i^rcat and small ; 
For the dear God re ho lovcth 21s 
He made and loveth all.'" 

It was William Harvey, the discoverer of the circulation of 
the blood, who first clearl}^ stated to the world the fact that every 
animal comes from an Qgg. This is as true of the toad as of a 
chicken. The toad lives on the land and often a long way from 
an}^ pond or stream, but the first part of its life is spent in the 
water ; and so it is in the water that the eggs must be looked for. 

To find the eggs one should visit the natural or artificial ponds 
so common along streams. Ponds from springs or even artificial 
reservoirs or the basins around fountains ma}' also contain the 
eggs. The time for finding the eggs depends on the season. 
The toad observes the season, not the almanac. In ordinary 
years the best time is from the middle of April to the first of 
May. One is often guided to the right place by noticing the 
direction from which the song or call of the toad comes. It 
may be .said in passing that toad choirs are composed solel)- of 
male voices. The call is more or less like that of tree toads. In 
general it sounds like whistling, and at the same time pronounc- 
ing deep in the throat bu-rr-r-r-r-. If one watches a toad 
while it makes its call, he can soon learn to distinguish the sound 
from others somewhat similar. It will be found that different 
toads have slightly different voices, and the same one can vary 
the tone considerably, so that it is not so easy after all to distin- 
guish the many batrachian solos and choruses on a spring or 
summer evening. It will be noticed that the toad does not open 
its mouth when it sings, but there is a great, expansible, vocal 
sack or resonator under tlic mouth and throat (see the left hand 
toad in the plate). 

The eggs are laid in long strings or ropes which are nearly 
always tangled and wound round the water plants or sticks on 
the bottom of the pond near the shore. If the eggs have been 
freshly laid or if there has been no rain to stir up the mud and the 




The toad 



in various stages of development from the egg to the adult. 



82 

water is clear, the egg ropes will look like glass tubes contain- 
ing a string of jet black beads. After a rain the eggs are 
obscured by the fine mud that settles on the transparent jelly 
surrounding them. 

Take enough of the egg string to include 50 or 100 eggs, and 
place it in a glass fruit dish or a basin with clean water from the 
pond where the eggs were found. Let the children look at the 
eggs very carefully and note the color and the exact shape. Let 
them see if the color is the same on all sides. If the eggs are 
newly laid the}' will be nearly perfect spheres. 

Frogs, salamanders and tree toads lay their eggs in the same 
places and at about the same time as the toad we are to study. 
Only the toad lays its eggs in strings so one can be sure he has 
the right kind. The others lay their eggs in bunches or singly 
on the plant so they never need be mistaken for the ones sought. 

The eggs which are taken to the school house for study should 
be kept in a light place, but not very long in the hot sun, for that 
would heat the water too much and kill the eggs. 

It takes only a short time for the eggs to hatch. In warm 
weather two or three days are usually sufficient. As the changes 
are so very rapid, the eggs ought to be carefully looked at two 
or three times a day to make sure that all the principal changes 
are seen. If a pocket lens or a reading glass is to be had it will 
add to the interest, as more of the details can be observed. But 
good sharp ej^es are sufficient if no lens is available. 

Hatching. — Watch and see how long it is before the develop- 
ing embryos commence to move. Note their change in form. 
As they elongate they move more vigorously till on the second or 
third day they wriggle out of the jelly surrounding them. This 
is hatching, and the}^ are now free in the water and can swim 
about. It is curious to see them hang themselves up on 'the old 
egg string or on the edge of the dish. They do this b}^ means of 
a peculiar v-shaped organ on their heads. 

How different the little creatures are, which have just hatched, 
from the grown up toad which laid the eggs. The difference is 
about as great as that between a caterpillar and a butterfly. 

Tadpoles, polliwogs. — We do not call the young of the frog, the 



83 

toad, and the tree toad, caterpillars, but tadpoles or polliwogs. 
The toad tadpoles are blacker than any of the others. 

The tadpoles will live for some time in clear water with appar- 
entl)' nothing to eat. This is because the mother toad put into 
each egg some food, just as a hen puts a large supply of food 
within the egg shell to give the chicken a good start in life. 
But when the food that the mother supplied is used up the little 
tadpoles would die if they could not find some food for themselves. 
They must grow a great deal before they can turn into toads, and 
just like children and other young animals, to grow they must 
have plenty of food. 

Feeding the tadpoles. — To feed the tadpoles it is necessary to 
imitate nature as closely as possible. To do this a visit to the 
pond where the eggs were found will give the clue. Many plants 
are present, and the bottom will be seen to slope gradually from 
the shore. The food of the tadpole is the minute plant life on 
the stones, the surface of the mud, or on the outside of the larger 
plants. Make an artificial pond in a small milk pan or a large 
basin or earthen- ware dish. Put some of the mud and stones 
and small plants in the dish, arranging all to imitate the pond, 
that is, so it will be shallow on one side and deeper on the other. 
Take a small pail of clear water from the pond to the school house 
and pour it into the dish to complete the artificial pond. The 
next morning when all the mud has settled and the water is clear, 
put 30 or 40 of the little tadpoles which hatched from the egg 
string, into the artificial pond. Keep this in the light, but not 
very long at any one time in the sun. The children may think this 
is not imitating nature, because the natural pond is in the full 
sunlight all day. The teacher can easily make them remember 
that the natural pond is on the cool earth' where it cannot get 
very hot ; but the small artificial pond might readily get very 
warm if left long in the hot sun. 

One must not attempt to raise too many tadpoles in the artificial 
pond or there will not be enough food, and all will be half starved. 
While there ma}^ be thousands of tadpoles in the natural pond, it 
will be readily seen that, compared with the amount of water 
present, there are really rather few. 

Probably man}" more were hatched out in the school-house 



84 

than can be raised in the artificial pond. Return the ones not 
put in the artificial pond to the natural pond. It would be too 
bad to throw them out on the ground to die. 

Comparing the growth of the tadpoles. — Even when one does his 
best it is hard to make an artificial pond so good for the tadpoles 
as the natural one ; and the teacher will find it very interesting 
and stimulating to compare the growth and change in the tad- 
poles at the school-house with those in the natural pond. 

As growth depends on the supply of food and the suitability 
of the environment, it is easy to judge how nearly the artificial 
pond equals the natural pond for raising tadpoles. It will be 
worth while to take a tadpole from the natural pond occasionally 
and put it in witli those at the school house so that the differ- 
ences may be more strikingh' shown. There is some danger in 
making a mistake here, however, for there may be three or 
four kinds of tadpoles in the natural pond. Those of the toad 
are almost jet black, while the others are more or less brownish. 
If one selects only the very black ones they will probabh' be 
toad tadpoles. 

Every week or oftener, a little of the mud and perhaps a small 
stone covered with the growth of microscopic plants, and some 
water should be taken from the pond to the artificial pond. The 
water will supply the place of that which has evaporated, and 
the mud and the stone will carry a new supply of food. 

The growth and changes in form should be looked for every 
day. Then it is very interesting to see what the tadpoles do, how 
they eat, and au}^ signs of breathing. 

All the changes from an Qg^g to a little toad (see the plate, , are 
passed through in about two months, so that by the first of June 
the tadpoles will be found to have made great progress. The 
progress will be not only in size, Init in form and action. 

One of these actions should be watched with especial care for 
it means a great deal. At first the little tadpoles remain under 
water all the time, and do not seem to know or care tliat there is 
a great world above the water. But as they grow larger and 
larger, they rush up to the surface once in awhile and then dive 
down again as if their lives depended on it. The older they grow 
the oftener do they come to the surface. What is the meaning 



85 

of this ? Probably most of the pupils can guess correctly ; but 
it took scientific men a long time to find out just why this was 
done. The real reason is that the tadpole is getting lungs, and 
getting ready to breathe the free air above the water when it turns 
into a toad and lives on the land. At first the little tadpoles 
breathe the air dissolved in the water just as a fish does. This 
makes it plain why an artificial pond should have a broad surface 
exposed to the air. If one should use a narrow and deep vessel 
like a fruit jar, only a small amount of air could be taken up 
by the w^ater and the tadpoles would be half suffocated. 

As the tadpoles grow older their lungs develop more and more 
and they go oftener to the surface to get the air directly from the 
limitless supply above the water. They are getting used to 
breathing as they will have to when they live wholly in the air. 

Disappearance of the tail. — From the first to the middle of June 
the tadpoles should be watched with especial care, for wonderful 
things are happening. Both the fore and hind legs will appear, 
if they have not already. The head will change in form and so 
will the body ; the color will become much lighter, and, but for 
the tail, the tadpole will begin to look quite like its mother. 

If you keep an especially sharp look out do you think you will 
see the tail drop off? No, toad nature is too economical for that. 
The tail will not drop off, but it will be seen to get shorter and 
shorter every day ; it is not dropping off but is being carried into 
the tadpole. The tail is perfect at every stage ; it simply dis- 
appears. How does this happen ? This is another thing that it 
took scientific men a longtime to find out. It is now known 
that within the body there are many living particles that wander 
about as if to see that everything is in order. They are called 
wandering cells, white blood corpuscles, phagocytes and several 
other names. These wander into the tail at the right time and 
take it up particle by particle. The wandering cells carry the 
particles of tail into the body of the tadpole where they can be 
made use of as any other good food would be. This taking in 
of the tail is done so carefully that the skin is never broken, but 
covers up the outside perfectly all the time. Is not this a better 
way to get rid of a tail than to cut it off ? 

Beginning of the life on the land. — Now when the legs are 



86 

grown out, and the tail is getting shorter, the little tadpole likes 
to put its nose out of the water into the air ; and sometimes it 
crawls half way out. Wlien the tail gets quite short, often a 
mere stub, it will crawl out entirely and stay for some time in 
the air. It now looks really like a toad except that it is nearly 
smooth instead of being warty like its mother, and is only about 
as large as the end of one's little finger. 

Finally the time comes when the tadpole, now transformed 
into a toad, must leave the water for the land. 

What queer feelings the little toad must have when the soft, 
smooth bottom of the pond and the pretty plants, and the water 
that supported it so nicely are all to be left behind for the hard, 
rough, dr}' land. But the little toad must take the step. It is 
no longer a tadpole, or half tadpole and half toad. It cannot 
again dive into the cool, soft water when the air and the sunshine 
dry and vScorch it. As countless generations of little toads have 
done before, it pushes boldly out over the land and away from 
the water. 

If one visits the natural pond at about this season (last half of 
June, first of July), he is likely to see many of the little fellows 
hopping awa}^ from the water. And so vigorously do they hop 
along that in a few days they may be as far as a mile from the 
pond where they were hatched. After a warm shower they are 
particularly active, and are then most commonly seen. Many 
think they rained down. " They were not seen before the rain, 
so they must have rained down." Is that good reasoning ? 

While the little toad is very brave in its way, it is also careful 
and during the hot and sunny part of the day stays in the shade 
of the grass or leaves or in some other moist and shady place. 
If it were foolish as well as brave it might be filled with vanity 
and stay out in the sun till it dried up. 

Food ox thk Land. 

In the water the tadpole eats vegetable matter, but when it 
becomes a toad and gets on the land it will touch nothing but 
animal food, and that must be so fresh that it is alive and mov- 
ing. This food consists of every creeping, crawling or flying 
thing tliat is small enough to be swallowed. While it will not 



87 



touch a piece of fresh meat, woe to snail insect or worm that 

comes within its reach. 

It is by the destruction of insects and worms that the toad 
helps men so greatly. The insects and 
worms eat the grain, the fruits and the 
flowers. They bite and sting the animals 
and give men no end of trouble. The 
toad is not partial, but takes an>- li\e 
thing that gets near it whether it is cater- 
pillar, fly, spider, centipede or thousand 
legged worm ; and it does not stop even 
there, but will gobble up a hornet or a 
yellow jacket without the least hesitation. 
It is astonishing to see the certainty 
with which a toad can catch these flying 
or crawling things. The wa}- the toad 
does this may be observed b}' watching 
one out of doors some summer evening 
or after a shower ; but it is more satis- 
factory- to have a nearer view. Put a 
large toad into a box or into a glass dish 
with some moist sand on the bottom, and 
put the dish in a cool shady place .so that 
the toad will not become overheated. In 
a little while, if one is gentle, the toad 
^P will see that it is not going to be hurt, 

^!C'%&,^^^^ and then if flies and other insects are 

put into the dish and the top covered 
with mosquito netting one can watch the 

Toad catchi)ig a ivingrd insect, , ' . -11 

audiiiustrahng ho7.' the io7igue process oi capturc. it IS Very quickly 

is exlendedayid broughtincon- i- 1 1 1 11-1 1 

tact 7vith the insect. Several accomplished, and ouc must look sharply. 

other creatures that the toad . , . , ^. . . , . 

might eat are shozvn in various As sllOWU \l\ the little plCtUre Oil thlS page 

tarts of the picture. , • c- 1 1 r 

the toad's tongue is fastened at the front 
part of it's month, not back in the throat as with men, dogs, cats 
and most animals. It is so nicely arranged that it can be 
extended for quite a distance. On it is a sticky secretion, and 
when, quick as a flash, the tongue is thrown out or extended, if it 
touches the insect, the insect is caught as if by sticky fly paper, 
and is taken into the mouth. (See the picture.) 




88 

Think how inaii\- insects and worms a toad coidd destroy- in a 
single snnnncr. Practicall>- e\x*r\- insect and worm destroyed 
adds to the produce of the garden and the farm, or takes awa)- 
one cause of discomfort to men and animals. One observer 




Toad iiiakififf a meal of a)! angle luorni. 

roports that a single toad disposed of twenty-four caterpillars in 
ten minutes, and another ate thirty-fi\-e celery worms within 
three hours. He estimates that a good sized toad will destroy 
nearh' 10,000 insects and worms in a single summer. 

KxEMiKs — Thk Shadow vSidk of Life. 

So far nothing has ])een said a1)out the troubles and dangers 
of the toad's life. The large plate at the beginning is meant to 
show the main phases in the life-history. If one looks at it per- 




A couple of Newts feasting on tadpoles. 

haps he may wonder what becomes of all the tadpoles that first 
hatch as onh" two toads are shown at the top. Is not this some- 
tliing like the human life-history? How many little children die 
and never ]:)ecome men and women ! Well, the dangers to the 



89 



toad besrin at once. S 




In danger from a bird of pre \ 



upposc the ci^-os arc laid in a ih)1k1 that 
dries up 1)ef()rc the Httle toads can get 
rcad>- to live on the land ; in that case 
they all die. The mother toads some- 
times do make the mistake of layin.g- the 
eo^o-s in ponds that dr>- up in a little 
while. You will not let the artificial 
]K)nd at the school house dry up will ^•ou ? 
Then sometimes there is an especially 
dry summer, and only those that trans- 
form from tadpoles to toads very early 
are saved. 

\\\ the little picture on page 88 is 
shown another source of danger and 
cause for the diminution in numbers. 
The newts and salamanders find young 
tadpoles very good eating and they 
make way with hundreds of them. 
Some die from what are called natural 
causes, that is diseases, or possibly they 
eat something that does not agree with 
them. So that while there were multi- 
tudes of eggs (i,ooo or more from each 
toad), and of just hatched tadpoles, the 
num1)er has become sadly lessened by 
the time the brood is ready to leave the 
water. 

Then when they set foot on land, 




Snakes usually, if not always, swallow toads hind legs foremost, as shown 

in the picture. 



90 

their dangers are not passed. Tliey nia\' be i)arched by suninier's 
heat or crushed under the feet of men or cattle. Birds and snakes 
like them for food. The pictures on p. 89 show some of these 
dangers. Is it a wonder, then, that of all the multitudes of tad- 
poles so few grow up to be large toads ? 

We have so few helpers to keep the noxious insects in check, 
it is not believed that any boy or girl who knows this wonderful 
story of a toad's life will join the crows, the snakes and the sala- 
manders in worrying or destroying their good friends. 

MOILTIXG AND HIBERNATION. 

There are two very interesting things that happen in the life 
of many of the lo\\'er animals ; the}' happen to the toad also. 
These are moulting, or change of skin, and hibernation or 
winter sleep. Every boy and girl ought to know about these, and 
then, if on the lookout, the}- will sometime be seen. 

Moitlting. — Probably everAi^od}^ who lives in the countr}- has 
seen a snake's skin without any snake in it. It is often very 
perfect. When the outside skin or cuticle of a snake or a toad 
gets old and dry or too tight for it, a new covering grows under- 
neath, and the old one is shed. This is a ver}^ interesting per- 
formance, but the toad usually does it in a retired place, so it is 
not often seen. Those who have seen it say that a long crack or 
tear appears along the back and in front. The toad keeps mov- 
ing and wriggling to loosen the old cuticle. This peels the 
cuticle off the sides. Now to get it off the legs and feet, the toad 
puts its leg under its arm, or front leg, and in that way pulls off 
the old skin as if it were a stocking. But when the front legs 
are to be stripped, the mouth is used as is sometimes done by 
people in pulling off their gloves. Do you think it uses its teeth 
for this purpose? You might look in a toad's mouth sometime 
and then you would know. 

It is said that when the skin is finally pulled off the toad swal- 
lows it. This is probably true in some cases, at least it is worth 
while keeping watch for. After a toad has shed his old skin, he 
looks a great deal brighter and cleaner than before, as if he had 
just got a new suit of clothes. If you see one with a particularly 
bright skin you will now know what it means. 

Hibernation. — The toad is a cold-blooded animal. This means 
that the temperature of its blood is nearly like that of the sur- 
rounding air. Men, horses, cows, dogs, etc., are said to be warm 
blooded, for their blood is warm and of about the same temper- 
ature whether the surrounding air is cold or hot. 



91 

When the air is too cool the toad gets stupid and inactive. In 
September and October, a few toads may be seen on warm days 
or evenings, but the number seen becomes smaller and smaller ; 
and finally as the cold November weather comes on, none are 
seen. Where are they ? The toad seems to know that winter is 
coming, that the insects and worms will disappear so that no food 
can be found. It must go into a kind of death-like sleep in which 
it hardly moves or breathes. A toad is sensible enough to know 
that it will not do to go into this profound sleep except in some 
safe and protected place. If it were to freeze and thaw with 
every change in the weather it would not wake up in the spring. 

The wonderful foresight which instinct gives it, makes the toad 
select some comparatively soft earth in a protected place where it 
can bury itself. The earth chosen is moist, but not wet. If it 
were dr}^, the toad would dry up before spring. It is not uncom- 
mon for farmers and gardeners to plough them up late in the fall 
or early in the spring. Also in digging cellars at about these 
times, they are found occasionally. 

It is very interesting to see a toad bury itself. If one is 
found hibernating in the fall, or if one is found very early 
in the spring on some cold da}" after a warm spell, the pro- 
cess can ver}' easil}' be seen. Put some loose earth in a box or a 
glass dish and put the toad on the top of the earth. It will be 
found that the toad digs backwards, not forwards. It digs with 
its hind legs and body, and pushes itself backward into the hole 
with the front legs. The earth caves in as the animal backs into 
the ground so that no sign is left on the outside. Once in far 
enough to escape the freezing and thawing of winter the toad 
moves around till there is a little chamber slightly larger than its 
body ; then it draws its legs up close, shuts its eyes, puts its head 
down between or on its hands, and goes to sleep and sleeps for 
five months or more. 

When the warm days of spring come it wakes up, crawls out 
of bed and begins to take interest in life again. It looks around 
for insects and worms, and acts as if it had had onl}^ a comfortable 
nap. 

The little toad that you saw hatch from an Qgg into a tadpole 
and then turn to a toad, would hibernate for two or three winters, 
and by that time it would be quite a large toad. After it had 
grown up and had awakened from its winter sleep some spring, it 
would have a great longing to get back to the pond where it 
began life as an egg years before. Once there it would lay a 
great number of eggs, perhaps a thousand or two for a new 
generation of toads. And this would complete its life cycle. 

While the toad completes its life cycle when it returns to the 



92 

water and lays eggs for a new generation, it may live many y ,ars 
afterward and lay eggs many tmies, perhaps ever}- year. 

Many insects, some fish and other animals die after laying 
their eggs. For such animals the completion of the life cycle 
ends the life-history also. But unless the toad meets with some 
accident it goes back to its land home after laying the eggs, and 
may live in the same garden or door yard for mau}^ years, as 
many as eight years and perhaps longer. (See Bulletin No. 46, 
Hatcli Experiment Station of the Massachusetts Agricultural 
College, Amherst, Mass.) 

Erroneous NotioNvS About the Toad. 

If one reads in old books and listens to the fairy tales and other 
stories connnon everywhere, he will hear man}- wonderful things 
about the toad, but most of the things are wholly untrue. 

One of the erroneous notions is that the toad is deadly poison. 
Another is that it is possessed of marvelous healing virtues, and 
still another, that hidden away in the heads of some of the old- 
est ones, are the priceless toad-stones, jewels of inestimable 
value. 

Giving ivaris. — Probably ever}- bo}^ and girl living in the 
country has heard that if one takes a toad in his hands, or if a 
toad touches him anywhere he will "catch the warts." This is 
not so at all, as has been proved over and over again. If a toad 
is handled gentl}' and petted a little, it soon learns not to be 
afraid, and seems to enjoy the kindness and attention. If a toad 
is hurt or roughly handled, a whitish, acrid substance is poured 
out of the largest warts. This might smart a little if it got into 
the mouth, as dogs find out Avhen they try biting a toad. It 
cannot be very bad, however, or the hawks, owls, crows and 
snakes that eat the toad would give up the practice. The toad 
is reall}' one of the most harmless creatures in the world, and 
has never been known to hurt a man or a child. 

A boy might possibly have some warts on his hands after 
handling a toad ; so might he after handling a jack-knife or look- 
ing at a steam engine ; but the toad does not give the warts any 
more than the knife or the engine. 

Living wiiho2it air and food. — Occasionall}' one reads or hears 
a story about a toad found in a cavity in a solid rock. When the 
rock is broken open, it is said that the toad wakes up and hops 
around as if it had been asleep only half an hour. Just think 
for a moment what it would mean to find a live toad within a 
cavity in a solid rock. It must have been there for thousarids, 
if not for millions of years without food or air. The toad does 
not like a long fast, but can stand it for a year or so without fe^od 



93 

if it is in a moist place and supplied with air. It regularly sleeps 
four or five months every winter, but never in a place devoid of 
air. If the air were cut off the toad would soon die. Some 
careful experiments were made by French scientific men, and the 
stories told about toads living indefinitely without air or food 
were utterly disproved. 

It is not difficult to see that one working in a quarry might 
honestly think that he had found a toad in a rock. Toads are 
not very uncommon in quarries. If a stone were broken open 
and a cavity found in it, and then a toad were seen hopping 
awa}^ one might jump at the conclusion that the toad came out 
of the cavity in the rock. Is not this something like the belief 
that the little toads rain down from the clouds because the}^ are 
most commonly seen after a shower ? 

Surveys and Maps. 

In considering the suggestions made in this leaflet, we thought 
of the hundreds of schools throughout the state and won- 
dered if there might not be some difficult}^ in finding the ponds 
where the toads lay their eggs, and in finding some of the things 
described in the other leaflets. 

The teachers and students in Cornell University found this 
difficulty twenty-eight years ago when the University opened. 
The great Louis Agassiz came to the University at the beginning 
to give a course of lectures on nature study. The inspiration of 
his presence and advice, and of those lectures lasts to this day. 

Agassiz, and the University teachers, who had many of them 
been his pupils, saw at once that the region around Ithaca must 
be full of interesting things ; but they did not know exactly 
where to find them. Agassiz himself made some explorations, 
and the professors and students took hold of the work with the 
greatest enthusiasm. They explored the beautiful lake, the 
streams, hills, valle3\s, gorges, ponds and marshes. Careful 
notes were kept of the exact locality w^here every interesting 
thing was found ; and simple maps were made to aid in finding 
the places again. Finally, after several j^ears, knowledge enough 
was gained to construct an accurate map for the use of all. A 
part of this map, showing only the most important features, is 
put into this leaflet to serve as a guide. 

It will be seen that the Universitv is made the central or start- 



94 

iiig point. With a few hints it is believed that every school can 
make a good beginning this year on a natural history survey of 
the region near their schoolhouse, and in the preparation of a 
map to go with the survey. 




Simple map showing the position of Cornell University, the city of Ithaca, 
Cayuga Lake, and the roads and streams and ponds near the University. 
From W. R. Dudley's map in "The Cayuga Flora." Scale, i centimeter to 
the kilometer. 

U. Cornell University. 

U. L. University Lake in Fall Creek. 

R. Reservoir supplied from University lake, and supplying the campus. 

E. P. East /b;/^ where the eggs of the toad, tree toad, frogs and sala- 
manders are found. 

F. P. Forest Home Pond. A very favorable place for eggs, tadpoles, etc. 
Inlet. The inlet of the lake. The lampreys are abundant near Fleming's 

meadow. 



95 

Preparatio7i of the map. — It is well to have the map of good 
size. A half sheet of bristol board will answer, but a whole 
sheet is better. About the first thing to decide is the scale at 
which the map is to be drawn. It is better to have the scale 
large. Twelve inches to the mile would be convenient. Divide 
the map into squares, making the lines quite heav3\ If so large 
a scale were used it would be advantageous for locating places to 
have the large squares divided into square inches, but much 
lighter lines should be used so that there will be no confusion 
with the lines representing the miles. 

LocatiJig objects on the 7nap. — The corner of the school-house 
containing the corner stone should be taken as the starting point. 
If there is no corner stone, select the most convenient corner. 
Put the school-house on the map anywhere 3'ou wish, probably 
the center of the map would be the best place. In the sample 
map the university is not in the center as it was desired to show 
more of the country to the south and west than to the north and 
east. 

The map should of course be made like other maps, so it will 
be necessary to know the four cardinal points of the compass 
before locating anything on it. Perhaps the school-house has 
been placed facing exactly north and south or east and west, that 
is arranged with the cardinal points of the compass ; if so it wall 
be the best guide. If you are not sure determine with a compass. 
With it the points can be determined quite accurately. Having 
determined the points of compass, commence to locate objects in 
the landscape on the map as follows : Get their direction from the 
starting point at the corner of the school-house, then measure 
the distance accurately by running a bicycle on which is a cyclo- 
meter, straight between the starting point and the object. The 
cyclometer will record the distance accurately and it can be read 
off easily. If no bicycle with a cyclometer is available one can use 
a long measuring stick, a tape measure or even a measured string ; 
but the bicycle and cyclometer are more convenient and accurate, 
especially when the distances are considerable. 

Suppose the distance is found to be one-sixth of a mile due 
west. It should be located two inches west of the corner taken 
as the starting point. If the direction were south-west then the 



96 

two inches would be measured on tlie map in that direction and 
located accordingly. Proceed in tliis way for locating any pond 
or marsh, forest or glen. Now, when the places are located on 
the map, you can see how easy it would be for any one to find 
the places themselves. While the exact position should be deter- 
mined if possible and located, one does not often take a bee-line 
in visiting them, but goes in roads, often a long distance around. 
In locating the objects on the map every effort should be made 
to get them accurately placed, and this can only be done by know- 
ing the distances in a straight line. 

It is hoped that every school in the state will begin making a 
natural hi.story survey and a map of the region around its school 
house this j-ear. The map will show l)ut few locations perhaps, 
but it can be added to from year to year, just as the University 
map has been added to ; and finally each school will have a map 
and notes showing exactly where the toads lay their eggs, where 
fish and birds are ; and where the newts and salamanders, the 
different trees and flowers, rocks and fossils may be found. 

If the dates are kept accurately for the different years one can 
also see how much variation there is. Indeed such nature study 
will give a sure foundation for appreciating and comprehending 
the larger questions in natural science, and it will make an 
almost perfect preparation for taking part in or for appreciating 
the great surveys of a state or a country. It is believed that il 
accurate in formation were collected and careful maps made by 
the different schools, the Empire State could soon have a natural 
nistory survey and map better than any in the world. 



I 



To the Teacher : 

It is the firm belief of those who advocate " Nature Study " that 
it is 7iot 07ily valuable in itself, but thai it will help to give enjoy- 
ment in other studies and meaning to them. Every pupil who fol- 
lows out the wo)k of this leaflet will see the need of a map of the 
regio7i around the schoolhouse. This will help in the appreciation 
of map work generally. 

So many of the beautiful and inspiring things in literature are 
concerning some phase of nature^ that '' Natjire Study'' must 
increase the appreciation of the literature, and the noble thoughts 
in the literature will help the pupils to look for and appreciate the 
finer things in nature. 

It is suggested that as many of the following selections as possible 
be read in connection with the leaflet : 

" The Fiftieth Birthday of Agassizf by Longfellow ; The 
''''Prayer of Agassizf by Whittier. (^This describes an actual 
occurrence. ) 

The flrst part of BryanV s " Thanatopsisf Coleridge's ''Ancient 
Mariner f Burns' " On scaring some water fowl in Loch-Turit" 
and '' To a Mouse. ' ' 

Cowper' s ' ' The Task, ' ' a selection from book vi. , commencing with 
line ^60. This gives a very just view of the rights of the lower 
animals. Kipling' s fungle stories ivill help to give an apptecia- 
tion of the world from the standpoint of the animals. 

In connection with the disappearance of the tail, read Lowell' s 
'' Festina Lentef in the Big low Papers. For older pupils , Shake- 
speare' s picture of the seven ages in the human life cycle might be 
read. ''As You Like Itf Act II Scene If near the end, com- 
mencing, "All the world ' s a stage," etc. 



life'- ^ MSs, 




[Reprinted from the JOURNAL OF APPLIED MICROSCOPY, Vol. I, No. 7.] 



Some Apparatus to Facilitate the 
Work of the Histological and 
Embryological Laboratory. 

*tge 124 ■ Every teacher who has to direct the 
work of beginning classes and of thesis 
and research students, is compelled from 
time to time to make modifications of 



tention is called to the following pieces 
of apparatus, hoping that they will serve 
to give hints to other teachers, and 
trusting that they, or some modification 
to meet special needs, will prove as ser- 
viceable to other laboratories as they 
have to my own. Most of them have 
been figured and described already in 
some form. The figures here given re- 



Name of Article 



I 



TvovJLwdl Acji' 



M-JXtLlA-'VW 



From 






' ■ • I A 'h Date ArXA-^^JL. l^, \%'\% 




Order No. 

Date of receipt of Articles 

Remarks ULS-JtoL. A>0 



X^SL^ Z,nx% 



Dep't. 



Oxtsir Q"ti 



11 



NEW YORK STATE 

VETERINARY COLLEGE, 

CORNELL UNIVERSITY. 



Fig. 1. Inventory card. 



apparatus, or under special stress to 
construct wholly new pieces. Indeed, as 
has been well said, a laboratory teacher 
who is not also something of an inventor 
cannot attain the highest success. At- 



present the latest and most satisfactory 
modifications. 

To begin with, the laboratory teacher 
IS in most cases held responsible for the 
property of the laboratory, and it falls 




10 CENTIMETER RULE. 

The upper edge is in millimeters, the lower in centimeters and half centimeters. 



THE METRIC SYSTEM 



UNITS. 



The most commonly used divisions and multiples. 
THEMETERFOpJ^^''^^ (cin^|. l;^00th Meter; Maiimeter (m.m.), l-iOOOth Meter; Micron (A*), 
LENGTH . . . i jrn^^l:^^^i]t?(}^V^^^^^ ' y^? Micron IS the unit in Micrometry. ^ '' 

{^Kilometer, 1000 Meters ; used m measuring roads and other long distances 
THE GRAM FOR fifi/%ra7tt (m.g.), 1-1000 gram. 

WEIGHT . . . l^rtof/rawi, 1000 grams, used for ordinary masses, like groceries etc 
TApiaTY ^°.^^ { ^'^'^ £Z%%ii&eV' '-'"^^^ ''''''■ ™^ '' --^ '^^^- ^^- the correct 
l-lO^tlT'^' °^^^^ ^'''^' ^'^ indicated by the Latin prefixes: deci, 1-lOth; centi, 1-lOOth ; milli, 
myri'^^m fiSet''^"''^ ""'' '^' ^^'^^ ^^'^^^^ ^ ^^^■«' '' ^^^^^ ' ^^^^^' 1^0 times ; kilo, 1000 times ; 

[This card (12}^ 7J^ cm.) is the size used for library catalogs.] 



Fig. 2. The metric system in a nut-shell. 



to him to indicate what is necessary to 
carry on the work. To facilitate this 
labor, and to make easily accessible a 
knowledge of the cost, place of purchase 
or the time recjuired to obtain any piece 
of apparatus or any material needed 
in the laboratory, the catalog blank 
(Fig. 1) has been evolved during the 
last 10 years. The card has been filled 
out in script from an actual case. In ad- 
dition to the information given in this 
card, there is usually present a mark 
showing where the apparatus is to be 
found, thus adopting the principle of 
shelf marking used in libraries. 

To facilitate the understanding of the 
metric system which is required in all 
our work each student is supplied with 
a card of the standard size used in 
library catalogs, shown in Fig. 2. 



ocular, but the majority find it hard lo 
do this. Various eye shades have been 
devised to obviate the trouble. 




Fig. 3. Laboratory Table, adjustable stool, 
water and waste jars, and screen. 



The most convenient size for a labora- 
tory table is about 125 cm. long, 72 cm. 
wide, and 72 cm. high, (48 in. long, 2S m. 
wide and 28 or 29 in. high); and for a 
seat, an adjustable piano stool, costing 
from $1.50 to $2.00. 

For the most critical microscopic work 
one most conveniently faces the light; 
this is hard on the eyes and hence some 
form of a screen is exceedingly useful. 
Those figured in Fig. 3, 4 were made by 
inserting a wire in a tin patty dish and 
filling the dish with lead. The wire is 
bent at right angles and a sheet of heavy 
paper high enough to screen the eyes and 
low enough to shade the stage, but not 
to interfere with the mirror is hung on 
the bent wire. 

Many workers find no difficulty in 
keeping both eyes open, simply neglect- 
ing the images of the eye outside the 




Fig. 4. Screen for shading the microscope 
and the face of the observer. 

One which has the advantage that it 
may be used for either eye and thus en- 
courages the use of the eyes alternately 
is shown in Fig. 5. 



-7 



14 



/o 



Fig. 5. Double Eye-Shade. This is readily 
made by taking some thick bristol board 
7 X 14 centimeters and making an oblong 

opening with rounded ends (o o) and of 

such a diameter that it goes readily over 
the tube of the microscope. This is then 
covered on both sides with velveteen and 
a central slit (s) made in the cloth. This 
admits the tube of the microscope and 
holds the screen in position. It may read- 
ily be pulled from side to side and thus 
serves for either eye, or for the use of the 
eyes alternately. 



Twenty years experience has shown 
that in a laboratory there must either 
be a microscope for each student, which 
is the best plan — or some arrangement 
by which two or more can use one mi- 
croscope and be held responsible for it. 
The form of cabinet finally adopted is 
shown in Fig. 6. 

The outside doors put the entire equip- 
ment under the control of the teacher. 
The small lockers make it possible to 
give each microscope to a definite num- 
ber of students, who can be held 
accountable for it. 

In order that specimens may have a 
neat appearance and be uniform, it is a 



age \26 




Fig. 6. Cabinet for Microscopes. 



great help for beginners to have some 
kind of a guide in mounting. Fig. 7 
shows such a device. 



I 






Fig. 7. 

A convenient label is shown in Fig. 8. 
As illustrated in the filled out label the 
thickness both of the cover-glass and 






27 



/^fcr 



:£bL 



Oct. 



t^ 



Fig. 8. 

of the section is indicated. The thick- 
ness of the cover is in hundredths of a 
millimeter, that of the sections in 
microns (/^). 



As it is desirable to have every stu- 
dent independent each should be given, 
if possible, an individual locker for his 
specimens and material. The lockers 
available in the histological laboratory 
at Cornell are shown in Fig. 9. For each 
there are several reagent boards with 
holes of various sizes and a drawer. 
Some of the reagent boards have holes 
about 25 mm. in diameter for the prepar- 
ation vials shown in Fig. 12, and they 
also serve very well indeed for storing 
parafRn imbedded tissues. 



& 



S 



Fiff. 10. 

For paraffin ribbons and for temporary 
mounts or for working series the rather 
expensive slide drawers (Fig. 10 A) and 



Page 127 




(X)0 
OOO 
(X)0 

@oo 



5 IMCH HOLES. 



oooo 

OOOO 
OOOO 
OOOO 
§000 
§000 



l,2 8r2iE INCH HOLES- 




1 INCH H0LE5. 
PLANS 

RCAGtHT B0AKD5 



REAGENT 50ARD5 AND DKAWER*3 ARE 
INTERCHAhGEABLE THROUGHOUT. 



^^ PLAN 

EiLrrVATIOh. '■■^- 

Fi)?. 9. Lockers and Reaeent Boards. 




Fip. lOA. 
Fig. 10 and 10 A. Facp 
views of slide drawers. 



and sectional 



cabinets are hardly available, and not 
altogether suitable. Instead, shallow 
drawers are used. One is shown in face 
and in sectional view in Fig-. 10. 

These fit the lockers and several of 
them may take the place of a reagent 
Ijoard or a drawer. As they have an 
edge all around, any one may easily be 
removed without disturbing the others. 
Each drawer is about 30x43 centimeters 
(12x17 in.) and holds 50 slides. They 
cost only about $12.00 per hundred and 
have proved a great convenience during 
the two years in which they have been 
in use. 

There have already appeared descrip- 
tions of two markers in the Journal, 
showing how widely the need has been 
felt. Probably a dozen different methods 
have been devised for finding some part 
of a microscopic specimen. The marker 
here shown is simple and has proved of 
great help for marking specimens to be 
used in class demonstrations and in 
special study. This form of a finder has 
the advantage that a slide marked by it 
can be used on any microscope. 



Page 128 



SS 



d 



91 



M 



~J 



M' 



\ 

Fig-. 11. The marker consists of the part 
SS with the milled edge (M). This part 
bears the Society or objective screw for 
attachingr the marker to the microscope. 
R. Rotating part of the marker. This bears 
the eccentric brush (B) at its lower end. 
This brush is on a wire (W). This wire is 
eccentric, and may be made more or less 
so by bending the wire. The central dotted 
line coincides with the axis of the micro- 
scope. The revolving part is connected 
with the "Society Screw" by the small 
screw (S). 




Section of a series marked to indicate 
that this section shows something espe- 
cially well. The lines of a micrometer are 
ringed to facilitate finding the lines. 





For much of the work of histology 
and embryology, small wide-mouth shell 
vials are very convenient. Three sizes 
have answered most purposes, 18x50 
mm., 23x65mm., and 35x90 mm. The lips 
should be slightly flared. The cost is 
$2.00 per gross for the smaller ones and 
$6.00 per gross for the largest ones. 
These are not good for long storage. 
They are for preparing objects. For long 
storage nothing is so satisfactory as a 
glass stoppered bottle. The larger of 
these vials takes a slide and is very use- 
ful for staining, clearing, etc. 

For reagents which are to be used with 
a dropper or pipette, bottles of various 
sizes are employed. That volatile li- 
quids shall not evaporate, a cork is 
perforated and put over the glass tube 
as shown in the figure. 




Fig. 13. Reagent bottle 
cork and pipette. 



with combined 



Fig. 12. Shell vials. 



For preparing objects a waste bowl or 
dish with a rack on the top for sup- 
porting the slides, a drainage funnel, 
etc., is very convenient. One may use an 
ordinary bowl or preferably an aquar- 
ium jar. (Fig. 3). The rack is made of 
two pieces of sheet lead into which are 
soldered brass rods. The funnel is made 
of brass or copper. 

For balsam, and homogeneous oil, no 
receptacle has been satisfactory for 
daily use except a capped bottle like a 
small spirit lamp. Fig. 15. 

A moist chamber for blood prepara- 
tions, etc., can be very simply made 
with a bowl or an equarium jar and a 
white dinner plate. 



age 129 



2^ 



^^fifii^-^Jii^P?:?^ 



Fig. 14. Waste bowl with rack and drain- 
age funnel (see also Fig. 3). 




Fig. 15. Capped holder for Balsam and 
homogeneous oil with glass rod. 




Fig. 16. Simple moist chamber. 



In handling amphibian eggs and other 
small and delicate objects an egg pipette 
may be easily made by cutting off a 
short medicine dropper and adding to 
the tip some soft rubber tubing. It is 
»'asy with this to catch and handle 
young embryos of frogs, salamanders, 
etc. 




Objects fixed with osmic acid alone 
or in combination with chromic acid or 
platinic chlorid (Flemming's or Her- 
mann's solutions, etc.), require to be 
washed out a long time in running wa- 
ter. To accomplish this washing without 
danger to the tissue and still thorough- 
ly, the following arrangement was de- 
vised: A small side tap was put in the 
pipe leading to the ordinary faucet. A 
copper box with a small tube near the 
bottom was put at one corner and this 
was connected with the washing tap by 
a rubber tube. A skeleton box with pro- 
jecting edge was then made to fit inside 



!!: m 



Fig. 1/. Egg-pipette. 



Page 130 




B A - 

Fig. 18. Washing apparatus for tissues fixed in osmic acid, etc. 



the receiver. This skeleton, inside box 
is divided up into a dozen compartments 
and for each a little basket is prepared. 
The tissue is put into the little baskets 
and they are placed in the compart- 
ments as shown in the figure (Fig. 18 A). 
The outside box is about 1 centimeter 
deeper than the inside one and the wa- 
ter runs in at the bottom and out over 
the top. This insures a constant change 
of the water, and as the water enters 
at the bottom it must pass through the 
perforations of the inside box and of 
the little basket before coming in con- 
tact with the tissue; it can be seen that 
the current is very gentle when it 



reaches the tissue. This apparatus has 
now been in use about six months and 
has proved very satisfactory. The 
washing apparatus shown in B, will be 
described by one of my students in a 
later issue of the Journal. 

For heating gelatin for injections and 
paraffin for filtering, etc., a combined 
receptacle and water bath was devised. 
The cut shows the construction. 

For the filtered paraffin that is to be 
used for imbedding, a combined water 
bath and receptacle was devised in 
which the water bath nearly surrounded 
the paraffin receptacle as shown in the 
cut. For a large laboratory the paraffin 
receptacle should hold about one liter. 




Fig. 19. Combined receptacle and water- 
bath for melting paraffin, and for gelatin 
injection masses. 



Fig. 20. Paraffin receptacle with water- 
bath, and spout for paraffin imbedding. 
P— Paraffin. 

In filtering paraffin and gelatin some 
form of hot filter is necessary. The 
form here shown has worked admirably. 



*age i:!l So much trouble was experienced in 

*' filtering from the clinging of the filter 

to the sides of the vessel that a wire 

basket leaving about 1 cm. space all 




Flp:. 21. Hot filter for paraffin and gela- 
tin, In section. B. B. Wire basket somewhat 
siiKilk'r than the receptacle. The Flannel 
or filter paper Is put inside this. H. Closed 
tube continuous with the water bath. The 
liuiisen burner or the alcohol lamp is put 
under this. 

F. Outlet of the filter. 

P. The receptacle for the pai'affln, etc. 
The cover fits inside P. and the whole Is 
suspended by a bail. 



j^z::^ 



around was devised. The filter paper 
01 fiannel is put in this and the parafldn 
or gelatin is then poured in as usual 
and as the filtered material oozes through 
the sides it runs down the wires to the 
outlet. 

For collecting with a bicycle I have 
found a can with a very large screw top 
very convenient. It is water tight in 
any position, and can be easily put into 
almost any form of bicycle carrier. A 
leather bag attached to the handle bars 
has proved convenient. Many times one 
needs considerable space and a pair of 
two-liter cans have frequently been 
carried. 




Fig. 23. Circulation-board for Necturl 
and frogs. It is composed of a board 
about 8 X 30 centimeters with a perforated 
cork bearing a thick cover inserted in a 
hole near one edge. B. The circulation 
board. It is covered with cloth or blotting 
paper. C. Sectional view showing the cov- 
ered cork in place. 

All the metal apparatus described in 
this article has been made of copper or 
brass, tin rusts out too soon. For the 
washing outfit (Fig. 18) wire netting may 
be used, but perforated copper or brass 
is more satisfactory, (Fig. 18 B). 

Simon IIenijv Gage. 

Cornell University, July 18, 1898. 



Fig. 22. Screw-top copper can for col- 
lecting with a bicycle. 



CtRANT SHERMAN HOPKINS, D.Sc, 

Assistaiit Professor of Veterinary Anatomy ayid 
A natoni tea I Methods. 



4RTICLE. 



Some Iviingless Salamanders. Illustrated. 

American Naturalist, Vol xxx, October, 1896. Pp. 829-833. 



THE HEART OF SOME LUNGLESS 
SALAMANDERS.' 



By G. S. Hopkins. 
From the .{mcrican Nahcralist, October, iSg6. Pp. S2g-Sjj. 



The recent literature of zoolog^^ has, perhaps, contained nothing 
more unexpected and startling than that certain adult salamanders are 
entirely lacking in those respiratory organs, which, heretofore, have 
been deemed indispensable to the existence of animals so high in the 
zoological scale as the Amphibia. This total lack of lungs and branchiae 
appears the more marvelous when we remember that they are absent in 
forms which lead a rather active and wholly terrestrial life, as well as in 
those of more or less purely aquatic habits. 

Two questions are naturally suggested by this apparently aberrant 
condition of the respiratory organs. First, what structures or organs have 
taken on the functions of the lungs and branchiae ? and secondly, is 
there any modification in the form or structure of the heart which in any 
way may be correlated with the above mentioned peculiarities of these 
lungless forms ? 

The first of these two questions has been discussed to some extent 
by Prof. Harris H. Wilder, of Smith College, who first published an 
account of this apparently anomalous condition. He concluded that 
respiration was probably carried on by the skin and, perhaps, to some 
extent by the mucosa of the intestine. Prof. Camerano has also pub- 
lished the results of some experiments upon two European forms which 
bear upon this same question. He believes that in these lungless forms 
respiration is effected in the bucco-pharyngeal cavity, and that the skin 
affords no efficient aid in the respiratory processes. 

In a still later paper he discusses the subject further, and tries to 
account for the disappearance of the lungs. Of one aquatic species (of 
the genus Molge) he says : "The function of the lungs as hydrostatic 
organs, is very marked." "In the clearly terrestrial forms one would 
say that the diminution in importance of the function of the lungs as 
hydrostatic organs induces a retrogressive development of them while 
at the same time the importance of the bucco-pharyngeal respiration is 
increased." 

It appears to the writer that Camerano 's conclusions need to be 
tested by further experiments, especially the part referring to the res- 



tRead before the Amer. Assoc, Adv. Science, Aug. 24, 



])irati()ii, for the area of llir (Krnial surface far exceeds lliat of the 
bucco-phar\ii,ii;eal cavity, and the skin is also \-ery riclily su])])lied with 
blood vessels which are so close to the surface tliat it would ap])ear as if 
the gases of the blood and air mij^ht be readily interchanL::ed. It is 
hoped that time will periuit of some experiments on this ])oint duriiii^ 
the coming year. 

As to the second (luestiou, whether there is an\ a])i)recial)le nuKlifi- 
cation of the heart in these lungless salamanders, nothing whatever has 
been published. 

It is the object of this i)aj)er to call attention to the fact that there is 
a difference in the heart of those salamanders that do not lia\e lungs and 
those which do have them. So far as 1 have examined, it is possible to 
distinguish between the two forms by examining the heart alone. 

In order that what is said on this point may be clearly understood 
by every one, and in order to bring out the differences between the two 
more sharply, if possible, I wish first to recall to mind the structin"e of 
the Amphibian heart and then contrast with it the relations as found 
in the heart of a lungless iudividual. We may take Huxley's descrip- 
tion of the Am])hibian heart as our standard of comparison. In his 
Anatomy of X'ertebrates he says : "The heart j)resents two auricles, a 
single ventricle and a bulbus arteriosus. A venous sinus, the walls of 
which are rhythmically contractile, receives the \enous blood from 
the body and opens into the right auricle. The left auricle is much 
smaller than the right and a single pulmonary vein opens into it." In 
regard to the septum of the auricles, he says that "it is less complete in 
Proteus, Siren and .Menobranchiis i Necturus) than in other Am])hibia. 
In Menobranchus the septum is reduced to little more than a wide meshed 
network of branched muscular Ijands, and in Proteus the existence of 
a septum is doubtfid." 

Tlie heart of our common Newt (Diemyctylus \iridescens ) Fig. i or 
of the large yellow-spotted salamander ( Amblystoma punctatum), for 
examples, corresponds perfectly with Huxley's description. In both of 
these forms the auricular septum is perfectly complete, the cavities of 
the auricles being entirely separated, except just at the auriculo- 
ventricular aperature, at which i)oint the two auricles conununicate with 
each other to some extent. 

In Necturus, the septum is more or less fenestrated an<l, according 
to Huxley, it is very incomplete in Proteus and Siren, but in all of the 
forms that have been mentioned, as well as in other members of the 
class Batrachia, the sinus venosus opens distinctly into the right auricle 
and the pulmonary vein into the left. 

Let us now com])are the heart of a lungless salamander 1^ h'ig. 2. )with 
the one just descril)ed. The four ])arts, auricles, ventricle, bulbtis arte- 
riosus and siiuis venosus are clearly recognizable and, superficially 
examined })rescnt nothing unusual ; it is only when the cavities are 



opened that the dilTcrences between the two hearts become apparent. 
One of the first thin<(s to attract attention is the left anricle. In the 
Uins^less forms examined, it is much smaller in comparison to the right 
than in Diemyotylns, for example, and no pulmonary vein ivas found 
open j no- inlo it. 

The auricular septum has only one opening through it, or perhaps, 
more correctly, it extends only part wa}'^ across the cavity, but this 
aperature in the septum is so large (Fig. 2, 9.) that it is believed the 
communication between the two cavities is more free than even in 
Necturus. Just what function or functions the septum may have in these 
lungless forms, it seems to me, is not quite clear. That it has but little, 
if any use, is indicated by the way -the sinus venosus opens into the 
auricles. In place of opening into the right auricle only, as in the forms 
having lungs, it opens more freely into the left auricle than into the right. 
If the ventral parietes of the heart be removed, one can look directly 
into the opening of the sinus venosus from either of the auricles, but 
more directly into it from the left than from the right, for when seen 
from the latter, one must look through the large opening of the auricular 
septum, Fig. 2, 9. In salamanders with lungs, each auricle opens in 
common into the ventricle with about equal freedom of communication, 
whereas in the lungless forms the right auricle is in more direct com- 
munication with the ventrical than is the left. 

Judging from the above facts, i. e. , the way the sinus venosus opens 
into the auricles, the freedom with which the auricles communicate with 
each other, and the w'ay the auricles communicate with the ventricle, it 
would seem as if the heart of the lungless salamanders, functionally, 
was only bilocular in place of being trilocular as in the rest of the Am- 
phibia. Morphologicall}', of course, it is trilocular, but whether it is so 
physiologically, seems to me doubtful. 

The hearts of 8 lungless species have been examined by the writer, 
and so far as was made out, all of them agree closely ^vith the description 
as given above. The probabilities are that in all the lungless forms 
similar conditions of the heart will be found. Up to the present time 17 
species and sub-species, either wholly without lungs or with only 
functionless rudiments of them, have been reported. In his last paper, 
in which are enumerated 15 of the 17 lungless species. Wilder sa3's that 
"in the Salamadridse lungless species are as numerous as those pos- 
sessing lungs, and that in consequence of this, the definition of the 
group must be modified." It seems, however, that even with his pro- 
posed additions, the definition is still not sufficienty comprehensive, 
for the peculiarities in the structure of the heart certainly have almost 
as profound a significance as the absence of the lungs themselves, and 
should be incorporated in any definition that may be given. In addition 
to the 17 lungless species already mentioned, the writer has found an 
additional one, Spelerpes gluttolineatus. 



PLATE XVr. 




SS.H. 



Hopkins on Diemyctyhis. 



PLATE XVII. 




Hopkins on Desmognathus. 



In order that one may see at a i^lance in which families and j^enera 
kungless individuals are found, the following table, taken from Prof. 
Cope's Batrachia of North America, is appended. [The last column is 
taken from the ]iapers of Wilder and others.] 



Families. 



Genera. 



No. of 
species. 



No. of s]jecics with- 
out lun.<;s or with only 
rudiments of them. 



Cryjitohraiuiiidae 



( CrN'ptobr.'uichus 2 
t ]\Ie<<alobatrachus i 



Amblvstomidae 



Aml)l3stoma 

Cliondrotus 

Linj^uaela])sus 

Dicamptodon 



I2[N.A.] 
I [SiamJ 



I A. opacum 



Hvnol)iidae 
"[all A.siatic] 



Hynobius 
SalauKUKh'ella 
Onychodactylus 
Ranidens 
Batrachy perns 



Plethodontidae 



^ Plethodon 
Hemidactv 



I Batrachoseps 
Stereochilus 
Autodax 

! Geotrit(Ui 
G3'rinophilus 
Manculus 



Spelerpes 
Oedipina 



[Kuro- 
pean] 



I P. cinerus 
2 ^ P. erythronotus 
( P. glutinosus 

I B. attenuatus 

I A. lugubris 

I G. fusciis 

I G. porphyriticus 

I M. quadridi.y;itatus 



( S. bil 
\ S. rul 

is. gh 



S. bilineatus 
ruber 
iuttolineatus 



Oedipus 



Thoriid 



loriKiae 



-| Thorius 



I O. varietratus 



Desmoirnathidac ] Dcsmoj^nathus 



i D. fusca 
I s D, f. brimleyorum 
I. D. f . auriculatus 



Salamandridae 
[Old World] 



Chiojj^lossa 1 

Salamandra 3 

j Hemisalamandra 1 

I Tri turns 6 

I Pachytriton i 



Families. 



Genera. 



No. of 
species 



No. of species with- 
out lunj^s or with only 
rudiments of them. 



C Salamandrina 



Pleurodelidae 
[All found in j Diemyctylus 
Old World; three ) Pleurodeles 
species in N. A.] { Glossolej^a 



Amphiumidae J Amphiuma i 

Coeciliidae -\ (numerous) 



[2N. A. 
species] 



(numer- 
ous) 



I S. perspicillata 



In the last column of the above table, the figures indicate the num- 
ber of species in which lungless individuals have l)een found. Where 
there is a discrepancy in the numerals and the number of species follow- 
ing them, it indicates either sub-species or si)ecies not mentioned in 
Cope's Batrachia of North America. 

Description of Figures. 



Fig. t. Heart of Diemyctylus viridescens (semi-diagramatic) to show 
the general relations of the heart of a salamander with lungs. 
The ventral wall of the heart has been removed in order to show 
the auricular septum, the openings of the sinus venosus and the 
pulmonar}' vein, and also the relation of the auriculo-ventricular 
aperture to the right and left auricle. 

I. Right auricle ; 2. left auricle ; 3. Ventricle ; 4. Sinus 
venosus ; 5. Bulbus arteriosus ; 6. Auricular septum ; 7. Auriculo- 
ventricular aperture ; 8. Aperture of sinus venosus ; 9. Pulmo- 
nar)'^ vein. 

Fig. 2. Heart of Desmognathus fusca (semi-diagramatic) to show rela- 
tions of the heart in a lungless salamander. The ventral w^all of 
the heart has been removed. 

I. Right auricle ; 2. left auricle ; 3. Ventricle ; 4. Sinus 
venosus ; 5. Bulbus arteriosus ; 6. Auricular septum ; 7. Auriculo- 
ventricular aperture ; 8. Aperture of sinus venosus ; 9. Opening 
through auricular septum. 



BENJ. FREEMAN KINGSBURY, A.B., Ph.D. 

Instructor' in Microscopy , Histology arid Embryology. 



ARTICLES. 



The Structure and Morphology of the Oblongata in Fishes. 

The Journal of Comparative Neurology. Vol vii, No. i. 
April, 1897. Pp. 1-36. 

The Encephalic Evaginations in Ganoids. 

The Journal of Comparative Neurology. Vol. vii, No. i. 
April, 1897. Pp. 37-44. 

The Demonstration of Karyokinesis, 

Journal of Applied Microscopy^ Vol. i, No. 5. 
May, 1898. Pp. 80-83. 



THE STRUCTURE AND MORPHOLOGY OF THE 
OBLONGATA IN FISHES. 

By B. F. Kingsbury. 

With Plates J- V. 

The writer was engaged in the study of the Amphibian 
brain at the time of the appearance of the monograph by O. 
S. Strong on the cranial nerves of Amphibia. Especially was 
it then attempted to determine in Necturus the ental origin of 
the nerves of the oblongata, and many results attained by 
Strong had been independently gained by me, largely under 
the stimulus of his preliminary papers, but the broad view and 
general application which made Strong's paper so valuable a 
contribution were in a degree wanting in my own. 

In Strong's comparison of the cranial nerves of Amphibia 
with those of "fishes " in the effort to find in the latter the rep- 
resentatives of the components already recognized by him, it 
was difficult to harmonize the accounts by various writers of 
the origin of certain of the nerves in the different forms. When, 
therefore, opportunity was afforded me during the past year of 
studying the brains of several ganoids and teleosts, especially 
Amia and Ammrus, one of the objects was to confirm the hom- 
ologies suggested by Strong, to find in these forms the rep- 
resentatives of the nerve components previously recognized in 
Amphibia, and to identify in these so variously modified brains 
the corresponding regions, and determine their morphologic 
and structural relations. 

It is the ultimate purpose, as just suggested, to work out 
somewhat carefully by means of the Weigert and Golgi meth- 
ods the structure and relations of the regions of this part of 
the brain for certain ganoids and teleosts, in order to g^tin a 
more exact knowledge of the connections of the various nidi 
with each other and with the rest of the brain and myel. This 



2 Journal of Comparative Neurology. 

last task is far from complete ; however, pending the time when 
results in this difficult field may be gained of sufficient definite- 
ness and coherence to render their publication of value, a more 
general consideration of the dorsal portions of the oblongata in 
fishes may serve to emphasize the regions whose various modi- 
fications have produced the truly enormous structures of cer- 
tain teleosts, namely; — (i) the center of the acoustic and lat- 
eral line system nerves; (2) that portion which is the undoubt- 
ed representative of the fasciculus comniums portion of the 
Amphibian oblongata ; and (3) the spinal fifth tract, the direct 
continuation of the dorsal columns of the myel. These are 
three systems having constant relations to certain cranial nerves, 
and should have names indicative of their character. It seems 
unwise, however, to introduce new terms. They will be spoken 
of as the ( Systcma ) aciistician, the fasciculus coninmnis or ( fas- 
cicuhis ) com77iunis system and the spinal Vth ( fifth ) tract, re- 
spectively. 

The forms considered here^ comprise 17 species, represent- 
ing among the teleosts 10 families and 5 orders. Although far 
too few to permit any general conclusions being safely drawn 
as to the characteristic development in the various orders or 
even families, they yet strongly suggest what may be the case, 
and have given a far better idea of the extent and significance 
of the modifications of the regions. 

This study was conducted by means of serial sections made 
through this region of the brain. Where but a single series 
was made the sections were transverse ; in some cases supple- 
mentary series were made in the other two planes. The brains 
were fixed in Fish's picro-aceto-sublimate (formula: picric acid, 
I gram; mercuric chloride, $ grams; glacial acetic acid, 10 
c.c. ; 50^ alcohol, 1000 c.c.) or vom Rath's picric-sublimate- 
acetic mixture (formula: picric acid, sat. aq. sol. 100 c.c. , hot 
sat. sol. mercuric chloride 100 c.c, glacial acetic acid 2 c.c.) 



^ Namely, Amia calva, Lepidostfus osseus, Acipenser rtibicundiis^ Atniiirws 
nebulosusy Catostomus teres, Notemigonus chrysoleuciis, Exoglossu/n 7tiaxillilingua, 
Notropis cornuius, Cyprinus carpto, Clupea psetiJoharengea, Esox reticulatus. Cot- 
tus ictalops, Perca Jlavescens, Lepomis gibbosus, Rocciis chrysops, Fundulus 
diaphanus. 



Kingsbury, Obloiigata in Fishes. 3 

Of these two the aqueous formula seemed more satisfactory, 
although they were not tested for comparative results. With 
these the stains employed were Delafield's hematoxylin and 
Van Gieson's picro-fuchsin. The hematoxylin and picro-fuchsin 
were preferably used separately and all staining was in section. 
The hematoxylin was used much dilute and allowed to act some 
time and overstain slightly ; subsequent staining in the picro- 
fuchsin lasted until all the hematoxylin was removed from the 
collodion in which all the brains were embedded and cut. An 
alcoholic (y^'j ^) picro-fuchsin stain was also employed. Wei- 
gert staining was conducted in the usual manner and these 
brains were fixed and hardened in 3 and 5 % solutions of potas- 
sium dichromate several weeks. 

The work was conducted in the Anatomical laboratory of 
Cornell University, and to the Anatomical Department I am in- 
debted for much material and all the facilities of research. 
Professors Wilder and Gage have helped me with their kindly 
interest, suggestions and advice, and the latter has lent me per- 
sonal assistance in procuring material ; for all of which I would 
express my grateful appreciation. All the Acipenser material 
was obtained and fixed by Dr. O. D. Humphrey of Erie, Pa., 
and to his care and skill the results obtained were due. 

Of the forms studied, the Ganoids, and Amia in particu- 
lar, form from every point of view the more natural and conve- 
nient basis for comparison and point of departure in studying 
the oblongata of bony fishes. Because of the presence of a 
cerebellum of typical structure, and the even development of 
the parts of the oblongata, Amia presents advantages over the 
simpler urodelan brain on the one hand and the other ganoids 
(as far as studied) and the teleosts on the other, which present 
greater though different complexities. Therefore it will be ad- 
vantageous to discuss somewhat the oblongata and cranial nerves 
of Amia ; avoiding, however, all details not necessary in con- 
nection with the purpose of this paper. 

The transition from myel to oblongata in Amia is gradual 
enough, and the cornua of the cinerea well enough defined (as 
contrasted with the simpler Necturus) to permit the following of 



4 Journal of Comparative Neurology. 

myelic structures into the oblongata, and it is in the dorsal por- 
tions, as usual, that the change is most marked. In a section 
of typical myel the ventral cornua are narrow and extend latero- 
ventrad ; dorsad of the myelocoele is a region of cinerea from 
which the delicate dorsal cornua extend terminating in swellings 
composed of amyelinic fibers and "ground substance" with 
numerous small cells interspersed. Surrounding these on the 
dorsal, mesal and lateral sides are fine closely aggregated myel- 
inic fibers. The ventral tracts are composed of coarser fibers 
with the characteristic Mauthner fibers ; the lateral tracts 
are formed of fibers, io general, intermediate in caliber between 
those of the dorsal and ventral portions. 

As the oblongata is approached, the dorsal horns enlarge, 
gaining a size three or four times that characteristic of the 
myelic portion (Figs. 6 and 13). At the same time the typic- 
ally small myelocele enlarges and assumes a subtriangular 
section ; the sulci forming the angle sextending toward the dor- 
si-meson and the ventral cornua. The larger part of the dorsal 
fibers disappear and just caudad of the metatela a concentration 
of fine fibers on the dorso- and ventro lateral sides of the cornua 
mark the first recognizable appearance of the spinal Vth tract. 
At this level the dorsal cornu and the gelatinosa rapidly disap- 
pear. (Fig. 15). 

Near the caudal end of the metatela, a lateral sulcus ap- 
pears, and dorsad of it the first appearance, as such, of the fas- 
ciculus communis (lobus vagi). (Fig. 15). 

Increase in size of the fasciculus communis tract and migra- 
tion ventrad of the spinal Vth tract give the former for a 
short distance a dorsal position. Soon, however, there appears 
dorsad of the spinal Vth tract and the fasciculus communis an 
area of fibers and intermingled small cells, which increases rap- 
idly in extent and soon becomes capped by a layer of amyelinic 
substance, the cerebellar crest (cerebellarleiste of Goronowitsch), 
a caudal continuation of the molecular layer of the cerebellum 
(Figs. 16, 17). The change in the morphology of the oblon- 
gata from this point cephalad is simply in the increase in size of 
this, the acusticum, displacing farther ventrad the spinal Vth 



Kingsbury, Oblongata in Fishes, 5 

tract, and the revolution of the wall between the ventral and 
lateral sulci somewhat from a vertical to a more horizontal posi- 
tion (Figs. 16-18). 

Ncroes. The vagus nerve arises by 4 (or 5) large roots 
each made up of two or three smaller rootlets. The most 
caudal root is undoubtedly purely motor and may be recognized 
some distance caudad of the metatela as an ascending tract. ^ 
As it passes cephalad it is reinforced several times by fibers from 
the the ventral horn, especially at its exit where a number of 
fibers come from the motor vagal nidus (Zwischenzellen of Go- 
ronowitschj now recognized as a distinct cluster of cells. (Fig. 
15, ni). The roots cephalad contain both motor and sensory 
(gangHonated) fibers and all arise in much the same way, the 
sensory from the fasciculus communis system (lobus vagi) as 
shown in Fig. 16, the motor from the vagal motor nidus and 
apparently also from cells of the ventral cornu proper, though 
they may yet arise from cells of the vagal nidus, the neurite 
simply bending ventrad first, it having in no case been traced 
into any cell. The caudal rootlets go ventrad of the spinal Vth 
tract, the cephalic ones dorsad of it (Fig. 16), while the inter- 
mediate roots break through it in passing to their exit. It was 
difficult to determine definitely whether the vagal roots which 
penetrated the spinal Vth tract drew fibers from it or not. 
However, those which passed dorsad to it clearly received a 
small contingent of fine fibers from it. This is important. 
Strong, from the fact that in Amphibia vagal fibers were closely 
associated with the spinal (ascending) Vth, considered it proba- 
ble that the same source for a portion of the fibers of the Xth 
existed in other Ichthyopsida. It will be seen later that a sim- 
ilar derivation of a portion of the fibers of the Xth occurs in 
at least some teleosts. 

Accompanying the vagus is the lateral line nerve which 
after the former enters the brain continues cephalad some dis- 
tance and is joined by the IXth which reaches it after piercing 



^In this respect there is a close resemblance between Aniia and N'ecturus 
(Amphibia). 



6 Journal of Comparative Neurology. 

the ear-capsule. The lateral line nerve is composed of the 
characteristic fibers with dense sheaths. It also receives a small 
contingent of fine fibers from the IXth and in turn gives to it a 
small bundle of its coarse fibers.^ The IXth enters the brain 
first (Fig. 17) and sends a bundle to the fasciculus communis 
and one to the lateral nidus of cells, a continuation of the vagal 
motor nidus. The lateral line nerve soon enters the dorsal 
tract, the acusticum, just ventrad of the cerebellar crest and the 
fibers can be traced cephalad for some distance ; whether any 
of them enter the cerebellum or not as Goronowitsch found in 
Acipctiser has not been satisfactorily determined; it seems im- 
probable. 

Ascending fibers of the Vlllth nerve may be recognized 
at the level of the IXth, dorsad of the spinal Vth. This nerve 
leaves the oblongata just dorsad of the spinal Vth tract. Other 
fibers of the Vlllth seem to terminate immediately on entering 
the brain near the characteristic large laterally situated cells, so 
regularly found, and a few turn cephalad ; however, the rela- 
tions in this complicated region have not been made out at all 
satifactorily as yet. So far, Amia agrees quite closely with Aci- 
pcnser, but in the origin of the remaining roots near the Vlllth 
there is a considerable difference. In the first place there does 
not exist in Amia the dorsal prominence present in Acipenser 
which was termed by Goronowitsch "lobus trigemini," and the 
nerve root issuing therefrom (Trig. II dors, of Goronowitsch) 
is absent as such. Very close to the Vlllth, so close as to be 
indistinguishable from it macroscopically, there arise in dorso- 
cephalic succession, Vllb and Vllaa;^ the former of coarse 



^Allis described the innervation of a dorsal line of free neuromasts and a 
canal organ by fibers of the IXth nerve. Undoubtedly the fibers received from 
the lateral line nerve have this distribution. It is precisely what we should 
expect. 

'The names by which the roots were designated by Strong in Amphibia 
are here used to indicate the homologous roots in fishes. The reference of Vllb 
and Vllaa to the Vllth nerve are matters of convenience merely; Vllaa, seems, 
however, the undoubted homologue of the " pars intermedia Weisbergii." 

The designation of the other cranial nerves by numerals is adhered to as 
better facilitating reference. It is insignificant otherwise. 



Kingsbury, Oblongata in Fishes. 7 

fibers identical in appearance with those of the lateral line nerve 
and entering the acusticum, and the latter from the fasciculus 
communis system which disappears with the exit of this root. 
(Fig. 18). Cephalad of the Vlllth is the motor Vllth (Vllab) 
which has the typical mode of ental origin so constant in verte- 
brates and so well described in Acipe?iscr by Goronowitsch. In 
addition to these there arises, sometimes ventro-cephalad of the 
Vlllth, sometimes dorsad, — there being a variation in this re- 
spect apparently, — a root composed of fibers from the spinal 
Vth. When it arises ventrally the fibers are drawn directly 
from the spinal Vth tract ; when farther dorsad the fibers which 
form it have a course upon the ectal surface of the acusticum, 
from which the bundle may be easily distingushed, and may be 
traced caudad as a distinct strand as far as the cephalic root- 
lets of the Xth where it joins the spinal Vth proper. To which 
nerves (rami) these fibers eventually go has not been deter- 
mined. 

Some distance cephalad the remainder of the spinal Vth 
leaves the brain in connection with two rootlets from the tri- 
geminal motor nidus to constitute the Vth nerve proper. A 
mesencephalic component was not recognized although the 
characteristic cells of the roof were found, and doubtless a 
root exists although I have not been able to determine its pres- 
ence. So much as has been said of the cranial nerves in Amia, 
while not sufficient for a consideration of the nerves themselves 
will permit the recognition of the components recognized by 
Strong, and may serve to introduce a discussion of the corres- 
ponding regions of the oblongata, namely, as before mentioned, 
the spinal Vth tract, the fasciculus communis system, and the 
acustic system, the acusticum. A more minute discussion of 
the origin of the nerves and the structure of the oblongata is 
reserved. 

Spinal Vth tract. The existence of the spinal (ascending) 
root for the trigeminal nerve has been quite generally recog- 
nized throughout the vertebrate branch and needs no comment 
here. Among Ganoids in Acipenser only had the presence of 
"ascending" trigeminal fibers been recognized, by Gorono- 



8 Journal of Comparative Neurology. 

witsch, though they were not followed caudad any distance. 
The view also that this tract represents the dorsal column in the 
myel and that its fibers correspond to the sensory fibers of 
spinal nerves needs not be emphasized. In fishes, teleosts es- 
pecially, the correctness of this view seems quite evident and 
has been recognized by Mayser. In higher vertebrates we find 
this view supported by Kolliker, Gaskell and Turner ; the latter 
considers the spinal root of the fifth and the solitary tract homo- 
dynamous, and apparently considers that both together repre- 
sent the dorsal columns ; Minot regards the tractiis solitarms as 
continuing in the oblongata the dorsal column of the myel 
(^fasciculus ovalis of the embryo). It is impossible therefore to 
draw any entirely satisfactory conclusions as to the representa- 
tive of the dorsal column in the oblongata, since facts of devel- 
opment in all but mammals are wanting. The homology of the 
vagal component derived from this system in some lower forms, 
and of the tractiis solitarms, is involved. Strong considers the 
fasciculus communis as the homologue of the tractus solitarius. 
Minot states that the late development of the spinal Vth tract 
in man interferes with a true comprehension of its value. 

In Ainia (and in certain teleosts at least) not only does this 
system furnish fibers for the Vth, but also for the Xth, as 
Strong assumed would be the case. The exit in Amia of a 
small portion of the fibers with the VII-VIII appears to be an 
exceptional condition, though constant in the few brains exam- 
ined for it. An important point in regard to this tract in Amia 
(and other Ganoids) is that it is superficial. The enlargement 
of the dorsal horns caudad of the metatela produces corres- 
ponding ectal swellings resembling the clavas of the mamma- 
lian brain, and from these in specimens in which all connective 
tissue has been removed from the surface of the oblongata, the 
spinal Vth can be traced. A slight swelling caused by the 
tract and a difference in color from the surrounding portions, 
due apparently to the concentration of the fibers, renders it 
easily distinguishable with the unaided eye. It seems especi- 
ally prominent in formalin preparations, and can be followed 



Kingsbury, Oblongata in Fishes. g 

readily into the Vth nerve (Fig. 3). Likewise in Lepidosteus 
the same tract may be macroscopically recognized. 

Fasciculus connnuuis system. It afforded considerable pleas- 
ure to recognize how exactly homologous the lobus vagi of 
Ganoids^ is with \\\^ fasciculus communis of the Amphibian brain, 
thus confirming the homology proposed by Strong. In Tel- 
eosts, however, the homology should also be extended to the 
lobus trigemini, wdien that structure exists. In certain Teleosts 
(Nematognathi and Eventognathi as far as examined) the por- 
tion of the fasciculus communis system associated with the pre- 
auditory root (VII aa) is considerably developed and even 
(Eventognathi) fuses with its fellow across the meson {Tuber- 
culum impar). This it is which was termed by Mayser lobus 
trigemini. The following table sets forth homologies the cor- 
rectness of which will better appear later. 





Postauditory 


Preauditory 


Amphibia. 


Fasciculus communis 


Fasciculus communis 


Ganoids. 


Lobus vagi 


Lobus vagi 


Elasmobranchs 


Lobi vagi 


Lobi vagi (?) 


Teleosts (some) 


Lobus vagi 


Lobus trigemini 



The name fasciculus communis first given by Osborn to this 
structure of the Amphibian brain has been adopted by Strong, 
Burckhardt and the writer, for Amphibia and more generally 
applied ( in Amia ) by Allis, and seems to have become firmly 
established. It is unfortunate that the study proceeded from 
the Amphibia to fishes instead of in the reverse direction, since 
when the term fasciculus is applied to other Ichthyopsida it be- 
comes somewhat inappropriate. Therefore some hesitation was 
felt in employing the name here. It should be remembered 
that it is not a fasciculus but a system or region of the oblong- 
ata. In those teleosts in which there is a distinction between 



^ The old term Ganoids is employed as a matter of convenience merely and 
is not intended as a prejudgement of the question of recognizing them as a dis- 
tinct group. There are however some differences in the nervous system in 
Ganoids and Teleosts which I believe will prove to be constant. 



10 Journal of Comparative Neurology. 

the pre- and the post-auditory portions of this system the old 
terms lobiis Uigcmini 2.x\di lobiis vagi ^yq retained, the fact being 
recognized, of course, that the nerve root from the former be- 
longs rather (on the present nomenclature) to the Vllth than 
to the Vth nerve. The '' lobus trigcviiiii'' of Elasmobranchs 
and sturgeons will be referred to later. 

Even in its highest development in Amphibia the fasciai- 
his coimmmis is much simpler than in Ganoids and appears 
simply as a highway in which fibers of a constant and peculiar 
appearance turn caudad from the VII, IX and Xth nerves ; and 
the cells of the adjacent cinerea sending processes into the tract 
must be considered with it as the end nidus. The so-called 
lob?is vagi of Ganoids includes nerve cells and thus must be 
more than the fasciculus communis of Amphibia. This tract in 
Amia resembles closely that in Acipenscr and the description of 
Goronowitsch applies to Amia as well. The tract first appears 
near the caudal end of the metatela, just beneath the endyma. 
It increases rapidly in size and soon produces a marked swelling 
in the wall of the oblongata, occupying the most dorsal region, 
from which it is soon displaced by the development of the 
acusticum (dorso-lateral tracts) (Figs. 15-17). From it arise 
by far the greater part of the sensory fibers of the Xth and 
IXth nerves and a large root of the Vllth with the exit of 
which it disappears. In structure it consists of fine fibers with 
areas of ground substance and interspersed small cells, which 
also form a layer just beneath the endyma. The general re- 
semblance between this structure in Ganoids and in Elasmo- 
branchs is quite close. 

TJie Aaistiann. The most dorsal portion of the oblongata 
in Amia is occupied by the ** dorso-lateral " tracts, which con- 
stitute the centre for the acustic and nerves of the lateral line 
system, and is here spoken of as the acusticum. It has certain con- 
stant connections with the rest of the brain and is capped by a 
caudal extension of the molecular layer of the cerebellum 
( cerebellar crest ) as already stated. This intimate association 
of cerebellar structure with this portion of the metencephal is 
very striking and suggestive. Roughly speaking, in mammals 



Kingsbury, Oblongata in Fishes. 1 1 

and birds the cerebellum consists of a cortex of well defined and 
characteristic structure and an ental mass of fibers. In reptiles 
the last seems to be wanting or ill-defined and the granular 
layer of the cinerea ( cortex ) becomes more closely applied to 
the endyma. Among the Ichthyopsida the simplest condition 
of the cerebellum exists in Urodeles, Petromyzon ( Marsipo- 
branchs?) and Protoptcnis ( Dipnoans?) where it is represented 
by a bridge over the cavity cephalad of the metatela, composed 
of fibers passing from one side to the other, and an associated 
and sometimes insignificant layer of apparently indifferent nerve 
cells. In presumably all the remaining classes, at least in 
Ganoids, Teleosts and Elasmobranchs {Rohon'yj, Viault'y6, 
Sanders '86) the cerebellum presents the structure typical of 
the cerebellar cortex in higher forms, namely, an ental granular 
mass or layer and an ectal molecular layer of fine fibers, and 
between them a more or less well defined zone of large cells 
sending their dendrites into the molecular layer, — undoubted 
Purkinje cells. In all these ( as far as examined ) the molecu- 
lar layer extends caudad over the oblongata, and in Ganoids and 
Teleosts so far as investigated, it is associated only with the portion 
seizing as the center for the acustic and lateral line system of 
nerves, the Actisticum. This is an important relation that 
should be emphasized. In some forms at least, (e.g. Amiurus 
et. al. Fig. ii.) the layer of Purkinje cells also extends caudad 
upon the oblongata. In sharks and rays the molecular layer 
extends almost to the caudal limit of the metatela covering in 
part the so-called Lobi trigemini ^ and the corpora restiformia 
which also possess the granular and Purkinje cell layers. 

Ascertainment of its exact relations in the oblongata of 



^ " Im innigen Zusammenhange mit den Lobi trigemini stehen auch die 
Corpora restiformia welche gleichfalls nur eine directe Fortsetzung der oberen 
durcheinander gewundenen Hinterhirnsubstanz vorstellen. Anfangs bestehen 
die Corpora restiformia aus der Grundsubstanz oder Neuroglia [molecular layer] 
und den Antheilen der inneren Hinterhirnmassen, spater aber bleibt von ihnen 
nur die Neuroglia zuriick, welche sich als ein Mantel auf den oberen Seiten- 
massen des Nachhirnes, die Pedunculi cerebelli bedeckend, bis in die Hin- 
terstrange des Rlickenmarks erstreckt, wo sie die Substantia gelatinosa Rolando 
zum grossten Theile darstellt." Rohon, p. 84. 



12 Journal of Comparative Neurology. 

Elasmobranchs may render easier a close homologization of 
the regions there. So impressed was Goronowitsch with this 
relation of the molecular layer of the cerebellum in Adpe?i- 
scr that he regarded it as an indication of the primitive integrity 
of cerebellar and oblongatal regions.^ Whatever may have 
been the primitive morphologic relations of the cerebellum to 
the oblongata, the point that should be emphasized, it is felt, is 
rather the present physiologic relation which must exist between 
the cerebellum and that, — morphologically most dorsal — part of 
the oblongata serving as the centre for the nerves of the ear and 
lateral line organs. Schaper has found that in teleosts as in 
mammals the fibers of the molecular layer arise by a forking, 
T-shaped origin of the neurites of the cells of the granular layer. 
In Amia and many if not all teleosts a large part at least of the 
fibers of the cerebellar crests of the two sides decussate in the 
caudal wall of the cerebellum, most clearly seen in Amiiirus. 
This and other evident connections may better be discussed 
subsequently. 

At this point very brief mention may be most conveniently 
made of Lcpidostais and Acipcnscr. A single specimen of the 
former was available. The resemblance between the oblongata 
of Amia and Lcpidostcus is very close. As in the former, there 
is no trace of the so-called lobus trigcmini of Acipenser nor any 
root to correspond to Tng. II dors, of Goronowitsch. The 
nerves present in Amia and their components were easily recog- 
nized, except that, smce no Weigert preparations could be 
made, it was impossible to determine satisfactorily the relations 
of the spinal Vth tract ; however, it is undoubtedly superficial 
and much as in Amia. 

The peculiar interest attaching to Acipcnsci' (or other stur- 



1 " Die innige Verbindung, welche zwischen Cerebellum und Medulla 
oblongata bei primitiven Formen nacbzuweisen ist, berechtigt die Ver- 
muthung, dass wir es hier mit einem primitiven Character zu thun haben. 
Es erscheint demnach denkbar, dass das streng von der Oblongata differenzirte 
Cerebellum der hoheren Wirbelthiere durch allmiihliche Reduktion der Cerebel- 
argebilde der Oblongata und durch eine allmahliche Koncentration dieser 
Gebilde im differenzirten Hinterhirne der hoheren Wirbelthiere entstehen 
konnte." etc. Goronowitsch, p. 539. 



Kingsbury, Oblongata iyi Fishes. 13 

geons) led me to examine the oblongata and especially the 
"lobus trigemini." As described by Goronowitsch there oc- 
curs dorsad of the cerebellar crest in the region of the Vlllth 
nerve and extending cephalad, an area of cells and fibers from 
which springs a nerve root (his Tiigemimis II dorsalis). Imme- 
diately beneath the cerebellar crest issues another root of coarse 
fibers, clearly VI lb of Amia. The fibers of the dorsal root are 
indeed finer than those of the more ventral, but the difference 
is not nearly as marked as one might suppose, and as compared 
with the fibers of Vllaa, they are coarse. Trig. I ventralis of 
Goronowitsch was found upon examination to spring, in several 
rootlets from a motor nidus and not from the posterior longitu- 
dinal fasciculus, representing the motor portion of the Vth in 
Amia. The tract named by Goronowitsch ** system r" is 
clearly both from the description and the examination of the 
brain, what was found in Aviia to be part of the spinal Vth 
tract, and from the examination of Acipenser the same seems to 
be the real destination of this tract there. System Y would not 
in any case be more than a partial homologue of the second- 
ary vago-trigeminal tract of the teleostean brain. The fact re- 
mains, that Acipenser possesses a root of comparatively coarse 
fibers, which is not present in Amia and Lepidostens, springing 
from a portion of the brain which is also apparently lacking in 
these two forms. This the " lobus trigemini " will prove, I be- 
lieve, to be the homologue of the structure of the same name 
in Elasmobranchs. 

Teleostei. As compact a discussion as possible of these 
regions and their modifications in teleosts follows. 

Nematognathi. In view of the belief of some that the 
Nematognathi among teleosts are the most closely related to 
Ganoids, we might expect Amiunis to show in the structure and 
morphology of its brain, some indications of ganoid affinities, 
but as has been already stated by C. J. Herrick '91, it presents 
as purely teleostean characters of the brain as other bony fishes, 
although simpler in some respects than many, — perhaps most, 
— other Teleosts. The morphology of the oblongata and the 
more striking and important structural features have been pre- 



14 Journal of Comparative Neurology. 

viously discussed by Wright and need only be referred to in so 
far as they affect the dorsal region. Except for the teleostean 
characteristic of greater concentration of fiber tracts into dis- 
tinct bundles, the oblongata of Amiiirus would be directly de- 
rivable from the ganoid type as presented in Ainia by a concen- 
tration of structure and a great development of the fasciculus 
communis system, especially the preauditory portion of its root, 
and the limitation of the acusticum to the dorsal side. To 
harmonize the relations here with those in other forms and illus- 
trate points already made, the following may be noted. 

The enormous enlargement of the dorsal cornua of the myel 
as the oblongata is approached, is a condition apparently quite 
universally present in " fishes ;" in Amiiims \\\^ changes closely 
compare with those in Cyprinoids as described by Mayser. Fig- 
ures 7-10 will give an idea of how clearly the relation of parts 
is indicated in Amiunis. Caudad of the oblongata occurs the 
enlargement of the dorsal cornua ; these, with the surrounding 
fibers move laterad and the fasciculus communis systems appear 
on the dorsal portion, the two sides connected caudad of the 
metatela by the Connnissitra infivia Halleri. The dorsal cornua 
rapidly diminish and about them on the dorsal and lateral sides 
the fibers of the spinal Vth tracts appear, — pushed ventrad by 
the greatly developed fasciculus communis systems (lobi vagi) 
which now occupy the dorsal region of the oblongata. Cephal- 
ad of the Xth there appears at the side of the oblongata a new 
structure, which spreads ventrad covering ectally the spinal Vth 
tract and soon is capped on the dorsal side by the cerebellar 
crest. This is easily recognized as the homologue of the acus- 
ticum of Amia^ the ttibcrailum aaistiann of Wright. In Ainiiiriis 
and indeed other teleosts, it is not purely dorsal but extends 
laterally over the oblongata, submerging the spinal Vth which 
until the appearance of the acusticum, was superficial. The 
pre- and postauditory portions of the fasciculus communis are 
differentiated into the so-called ** trigeminal " and "vagal" 
lobes ; the former are enormous and dove-tail into each-other ; 
they extend dorsad and displace the acusticums laterally (Figs. 
5 and 11), but no fusion occurs, — at least not in the individuals 



Kingsbury, Oblongata in Fishes. 15 

examined, although it may possibly be found in older specimens. 

Of the cranial nerve roots little need be added to Wright's 
account. The sensory portion of the Xth springs from the 
lobus vagi in a single large root, passing dorsad of the spinal 
Vth. A small contingent of fibers from this tract was easily 
demonstrable. The motor portion of the vagus springs from 
its nidus just ventrad of the fasciculus communis in 8-10 small 
roots which pass on the ventral side of the spinal Vth. A root 
bundle of the Xth composed of coarse fibers of characteristic 
appearance, undoubtedly the lateral line nerve, passes cephalad 
from the Xth accompanied by a fine fibered bundle (IX) which 
enters the brain first, penetrating the acusticum to reach the 
fasciculus communis (Fig. 24), while the coarse fibered root en- 
ters the acusticum just ventrad of the cerebellar crest and may 
be traced cephalad some distance. From the lobus trigemini 
arises an enormous root, Yllaa, the * 'dorsal geniculate root of the 
Vth ;" and close to it there arise, (i) from the acusticum dorsad 
of it a root which as Wright determined innervates the neuro- 
masts (Vllb), (2) caudad and ventrad, the VIII, and (3) the 
facial proper arising in its usual manner and leaving the brain 
ventrad at about the level of Vllaa. A slight distance cephal- 
ad there arises the Vth proper, composed of the spinal Vth 
and two bundles from the trigeminal motor nidus. No mesen- 
cephalic origin for any of the fibers has as yet been recognized 
in AmiuriLS. 

It is not at all difficult to recognize here the same compon- 
ents present in Amia ; most notable is the enormous develop- 
ment of Vllaa. It is to be noted also that in Amiurus there 
occur no fusions across the meson, such as are found in other 
teleosts, neither of the lobi trigemini nor the acusticums; what 
Wright described as a fusion of the latter is the decussation of 
the fibers of the cerebellar crest in the cerebellum. The mass- 
ing of the fasciculus communis system and especially the devel- 
opment of the preauditory part as the lobus trigemini has dis- 
placed the acusticum from its typically dorsal position and 
crowded it to the side. By a reduction of the fasciculus com- 
munis element and a cephalo-caudal stretching of the oblongata, 



1 6 Journal of Comparative Neurology. 

especially of the acusticums, the form might be easily reduced 
to that of the following order. 

Haplomi. In Esox and Fjmdiilus, the two representatives 
of this order examined, the conditions are even somewhat more 
satisfactory than in Aniiiinis, since the communis system is 
much more weakly and evenly developed. The exact caudal 
limit of this system is in Esox somewhat difficult to determine 
exactly from the material at hand. A common mesal area rep- 
resentating the comm. infiina Hallcri appears between the dor- 
sal cornua and is soon divided into the paired tracts at the 
caudal end of the metatela. The Xth arises by 4 or 5 closely 
associated roots which contain both sensory fibers from the fas- 
ciculus communis and motor from the vagal nidus {711). These 
all pass ventrad of the spinal Vth. Cephalad of these the 
acusticum appears in transection dorsad of the spinal Vth, and 
is soon capped by the cerebellar crest. An isolated root 
(IX ?) composed of communis and motor components enters, 
penetrating the acusticum, cephalad of which and near the en- 
trance of the lateral line root another small root from the com- 
munis system and motor nidus enters. The lateral line nerve 
enters the acusticum immediately beneath the molecular layer. 
The VIII nerve springs from the acusticum by 2 (or 3 ) roots, 
dorsad and cephalad of which arises Vllb, followed by Vllaa 
and Vllab, the former at about the same level, the latter 
farther ventrad. The spinal Vth leaves the brain a short dis- 
tance cephalad accompanied by motor strands (2 or 3) from the 
trigeminal motor nidi. 

Fundulus, in the structure of its oblongata closely agrees 
with Esox ; the caudal limit of the fasciculus communis systems 
was clearly defined and easily distinguished from the dorsal cor- 
nua. The Xth arises in 3 divisions, the sensory fibers ( from 
the communis system) dorsad and the motor ventrad of the 
spinal Vth. Isolated sensory and motor roots (IX?) enter far- 
ther cephalad, the former from the fasciculus communis, the 
latter from a motor nidus. The lateral line nerve is small ; its 
relations are as already described. VIII, Vllb and Vllaa 
leave the brain very near each other and the Vth follows closely. 



Kingsbury, Oblongata in Fishes. 17 

In these two fish the fasciculus communis system is evenly 
developed. At the exit of the Xth it is dorsal but it is soon 
displaced by the acusticum. There is no " lobus trigemini "; 
Vllaa develops as the fasciculus communis diminishes and has 
a short cephalic course before leaving the brain. In Fundulus 
this root and also the entire communis system is somewhat 
better developed than in Esox. In Esox there is a division in- 
to two quite well defined regions. No vagal fibers were seen 
to spring from the spinal Vth. No Weigert preparations were 
made and on further study no doubt such a component will be 
found to exist. Important it is in view of the conditions in the 
forms to be mentioned, that in theae, as in Ainiurus, there are 
no secondary fusions of endymal surface in the oblongata 
(Fig. 20). 

Acantkopteri. Four spiny- rayed teleosts were studied, rep- 
resentatives of as many families, — Roccus, Perca, Cottus, Lepo- 
mis. In these one important general difference from the forms 
hitherto mentioned occurs in the dorsal fusion of the acusticums 
across the meson (Fig. 19). It extends from about the region 
of entrance of the lateral line nerve cephalad nearly to the exit 
of the Vllth. It is substantial, involving the molecular layer 
and the portion beneath it, obliterating the endyma and giving 
passage to fibers from side to side. Aside from this the relative 
development of the regions of the oblongata is much as in the 
Haplomi. The communis system is but slightly developed and 
there is no differentiation of pre- and postauditory portions. A 
few words may be said in description of each separately. 

In RoccuSy (Fig. 23) the fasciculus communis system ap- 
pears some distance caudad as a mesal area between the dorsal 
cornua. The development of the spinal Vth tract upon the 
dorsal and lateral sides of these and its direct continuity with 
the dorsal fibers of the myel are very clearly shown. 

The Xth arises by 7-8 poorly defined roots which pass ven- 
trad of the spinal Vth. It derives a distinct component of fi- 
bers from this tract. The lateral line nerve enters in the char- 
acteristic place just beneath the cerebellar crest, and at the 
same level a fine fibered root from the Xth which passes cephal- 



1 8 Journal of Comparative Neurology. 

ad in company with a portion of the VIII, enters, going dor- 
sad of the spinal Vth to the fasciculus communis system. Vllaa 
is well developed and its deep course and origin are as in Esox. 
A slight endymal fusion occurs between the caudal portions of 
the fasciculus communis systems. It is insignificant. 

In Lepomis, as in RoccuSy the spinal Vth tract is very prom- 
inent on the surface of the dorsal cornua. The roots of the 
Xth pass ventrad of the tract and derive a component from it. 
The isolated cephalic vago-glosso pharyngeal root enters just 
caudad of the lateral line nerve and near the beginning of the 
fusion. 

In Perca (Figs. 12 and 19) also, the spinal Vth tract is 
strongly pronounced, the fibers being grouped in two bundles. 
The Xth nerve passes ventrad of it and receives a strong strand 
of fibers from its dorsal division (Fig. 12). The cephalic root 
enters as before described, dividing the spinal Vth tract in its 
passage to the fasciculus communis. 

In Coitus no spinal Vth component to the Xth was recog- 
nized with certainty. The fusion of the acusticums was not 
as strong as in the other three forms. 

In all the origin of Vllaa was as already described in Esox, 
having a cephalic course after its formation before leaving the 
brain. The fasciculus communis system was most developed in 
Roccus and Lepomis, where, as in Esox, there was an indication 
of two regions, dorsal and ventral. 

Isospondyli. A single species belonging to this order 
was examined, the alewife, Cliipea pseudoharengeay and the 
study bestowed upon it at present only suffices to permit the 
general relations of these regions being mentioned. A strong 
fusion of the acusticum systems occurs and since these are 
drawn cephalad under the cerebellum and the cerebellar crest is 
also somewhat concentrated, the appearance produced is that of 
two lobes of the cerebellum. The fasciculus communis is but 
weakly developed, especially the preauditory portion of it. The 
Xth arises by three large roots which penetrate the spinal fifth 
tract to reach their central connections, the two more cephalic 
also^ passing ^through the acusticum which extends caudad to 



Kingsbury, Oblongata in Fishes. I9 

this level. The lateral line nerve is small, but yet unexpectedly- 
large when it is remembered that the lateral canal of the lateral 
line system is short ; doubtless neuromasts in the epidermis oc- 
cur. Cephalad of this root, one of medium size springs from 
the fasciculus communis system (IX ?), Vllaa is very small ; 
Vllb rather large. 

Eventognathi. In the Cyprinidae we encounter forms al- 
ready well known from the monograph of Mayser ^ and in them 
and the Catostomidae there exists so far as known to me, the 
greatest complexity of the oblongatal region among teleosts. 
The secondary fusion of the oblongata, involving in the two or- 
ders last mentioned the acusticum only, here includes also the 
preauditory portion of the fasciculus communis system and 
there is produced the tuberculum impar of earlier authors. For 
this fusion the great development of the fasciculus communis 
system and the nerves issuing from it, seems probably, in a de- 
gree, responsible ; an increasing growth of this system under 
the limitations which the fusion of its cephalic portion imposes, 
produces apparently the monstrosity of the carp and sucker 
brain. A displacement of the acustic systems is also a neces- 
sary accompaniment of the growth and eversion of this inner 
region, and instead of being dorsal, it has been crowded cephal- 
ad, although when other things are considered, this may be 
shown to be more apparent than real. In the brains examined, 
however, a series of increasing complexity may be easily formed, 
which further studies will undoubtedly make more complete. 

To Mayser's account of the cyprinoid brain little more can 
be added than to speak of the different modifications of the re- 
gions and their relations to the cranial nerves. No microscop- 
ical study of the carp brain has been made and Mayser's ac- 
count has been taken as the source of information. Notemigonus 
is the simplest of the cyprinoid brains examined by the writer. 
The caudal beginning of the fasciculus communis systems is 



* Mayser examined many teleosts besides cyprinoids, and in the absence of 
any comparison or statement to the contrary, it has been assumed by some (and 
naturally) that the conditions described by him were typical of teleosts 
generally. 



20 Journal of Comparative Neurology. 

easily recognized and its development though great is not ex- 
cessive (Fig. 14.). It soon assumes a dorsal position in the 
oblongata and the Xth nerve arises from it in two main divis- 
ions, both passing dorsad of the spinal Vth tract. Cephalad of 
the Xth the acusticum soon begins upon the side of the ob- 
longata and at the caudal end of the fused preauditory portion 
of the fasciculus communis systems, the cerebellar crest appears. 
Two isolated fasciculus communis roots enter, one a short dis- 
tance cephalad of the mass of the Xth nerve, the other (IX ?) 
near the level of the entrance of the lateral line nerve (VIII 
post., Mayser). The tiibcrculum vnpar is a single mass, al- 
though a mesal groove on its dorsal side indicates its paired 
composition. From it fibers concentrate to form Vllaa which 
continues cephalad for a short distance as a round bundle after 
the tuberculum impar has been replaced by the fused acusti- 
cums. The roots in this region are much as in other forms and 
as described by Mayser, except that he recognized no root 
from the " tuberculum" acusticum except the Vlllth ; Vllb and 
Vllaa as before, emerge together, Vllaa cephalad, Vllb cau- 
dad. The point of interest in Notemigoniis is that the pre- and 
postauditory portions of the fasciculus communis system are 
directly continuous as in the teleosts before described and the 
postauditory or vagal portion does not overlap the tuberculum 
impar. The caudal limit of the communis fusion and the cere- 
bellar crest upon the acusticum is nearly the same. 

In Notropis, the common shiner, the vagal lobes are some- 
what more developed and extend cephalad slightly around the 
tuberculum impar, so that in the same transection there is in- 
cluded the tuberculum impar, lobus vagi, and acusticum. In 
Exoglossiim this is yet more marked and the structure is more 
carp-like (Fig. 26). The Xth as before, passes dorsad of the 
spinal Vth, occasionally breaking through it. An isolated ceph- 
alic fasciculus communis root (IX ?) enters caudad of the en- 
trance of the lateral hne nerve. 

In the carp the development and eversion of the vagal 
lobes (postauditory portion of the fasciculus communis) is much 
greater so that the spinal Vth is ventral rather than lateral and, 



Kingsbury, Oblongata tn Fishes. 21 

as Mayser shows, may be easily seen upon the ectal surface 
until the acusticum covers it up. A drawing of the dorsal 
aspect of the carp oblongata is shown in Fig. 2. (Comp. Fig. 
4, of Para.) 

In Catostoimis (Figs. 21, 22, 25) the development of the 
vagal lobes and tuberculum impar (fasciculus communis sys- 
tem) is carried a step farther. The vagal lobes are enormous 
and together with the cerebellum quite conceal the tuberculum 
impar and acusticums. The very large sensory portion of the 
Xth arises in two divisions and the motor farther ventrally 
but dorsad of, or breaking through the spinal Vth tract (Fig. 
21). Farther cephalad another quite large root enters the 
lobus vagi after the acusticum has already appeared in tran- 
section (IX?). Figure 22 shows the overlapping of regions and 
Figure 25 may be compared with the similar section of Perca 
Fig. 19. 

In none of the Eventognathi has a component of vagal fi- 
bers from the spinal Vth tract been certainly detected. 

In General. The acusticum system in all these teleosts is 
not only dorsal but extends laterad over the side of the ob- 
longata covering and submerging the spinal Vth tract which un- 
til its appearance is superficial. The general description of the 
structural appearance of the fasciculus communis in Amia ap- 
plies also to teleosts. 

In some forms the zone of small cells next the endyma is 
quite thick, six or seven cells deep. In Amiurus this zone is 
wanting and the cells are quite evenly dispersed through the re- 
gion. When the system becomes greatly developed the dorsal 
and lateral growth involves structures covered primarily (typi- 
cally) by endyma until they become ectal and pial. Closely 
associated with the communis system is the vagal motor nidus. 
In Amia (Fig. 16) and the simple teleosts (Figs. 10, 12, 13, 23, 
24) this lies ventrad of the fasciculus communis and is easily 
recognized as forming no part with it, but in the cyprinoids 
(and suckers) the eversion of the fasciculus communis involves 
this region as well (Fig. 21.). Thus Mayser recognized in the 
lobus vagi of the carp 5 zones or layers, — (i) fibers of the va- 



22 Journal of Comparative Neurology. 

gus, (2) gelatinous substance, (3) secondary vagus tract, (4) 
motor nidus, (5) endyma. Between (i) and (2) might be inter- 
polated the zone of small cells. Of these five layers only the 
first two would belong to the communis system ; the others are 
involved because of the modification of this region. The tract 
recognized by Mayser and termed the "secondary vago-trigem- 
inal tract " appears quite constantly in the teleosts (examined). 
It is a tract ventrad or ventro-mesad of the spinal Vth tract, 
formed by fibers coming from the fasciculus communis and go- 
ing cephalad to a nidus at the base of the cerebellum (Rinden- 
knoten, Mayser) which communicates with its fellow by a dor- 
sal commissure through the cerebellum.^ 

The relation the issuing vagal fibers bear to the spinal Vth 
is clearly due to mechanical advantage and the course they take 
is regulated by the position and development of their oblon- 
gatal center. 

The communication of the two fasciculus communis sys- 
tems caudad of the metatela, spoken of as the '* commissura 
mfinia Halleri'' appears constant. The caudal limit of the com- 
munis system was not always easy to determine. In most how- 
ever (especially Aniiiirus and Percd)^ its limit was apparent, and 
Mayser's view that this as well as the spinal Vth was continuous 
with the gelatinosa of the myel, is questionable. 

The distribution of the fibers of the root spoken of as the 
** lateral line nerve " has not been determined for any of the 
teleosts. It is, however, the undoubted homologue of the lat- 
eral line nerve in A)nia and Acipenser in which its distribution 
has been shown. There is constantly found an isolated root 
from the fasciculus communis near or slightly caudad of the 
lateral line nerve, which I am inclined to think represents the 
sensory portion of the IXth. The relation in Amiunis rescm- 



'^ Mayser believed the secondary vago-trigeminal tracts decussated through 
the cerebellum. From the conditions in Aniiurus, which has been more espec- 
ially studied, this does not seem to be the case ; the two tracts terminate and 
the nidi in which they terminate are connected by a dorsal commissure through 
the cerebellum. 



Kingsbury, Oblongata in Fishes. * 23 

bles that in Amia and the correctness of the homology seems 
probable. 

An estimate of the absolute amount of development these 
systems have undergone in the Eventognathi and the extent to 
which it alone has influenced the morphology of the oblongata 
appears as yet impossible, because all the necessary data are not 
known, A simple concentration of structure whether due to 
intrinsic or extrinsic causes, might in some cases appear as a 
greater development. The fusions, also, are unexplainable until 
a study of the development of the oblongata has been made in 
which are carefully considered the conditions of growth and the 
relation of the oblongata to the cranial wall and ear. 



Conclusion. 

To sum up, then, the result of the foregoing observations, 
the morphologically dorsal region of the oblongata is composed 
of three systems, the spinal Vth tract, the fasciculus communis 
system and the acusticum. The first is the direct representa- 
tive in the oblongata of the dorsal horn and associated columns 
of alba of the myel ; the other two regions appear peculiar to 
the oblongata, the first typically more mesal, the second dorsal 
and capped by a caudal extension of the molecular layer of the 
cerebellum. The spinal V furnishes all (?) the sensory fibers 
of the trigeminal nerve and, in Amia, Perca, Amiurus, Roccus and 
Lepomis, at least, a small contingent of fibers to the Xth (possi- 
bly in Ganoids (^;;22<3:), to the seventh also). From t\\Q fascicu- 
lus co7nmunis spring the larger part of the ganglionated IX and 
X and VII ; while from the tuberculum acusticum, the nerves 
supplying the ear and the organs of the lateral line system. In 
Amia, and it is probably so for other Ganoids, the spinal V is 
superficial, in other words the acusticum is wholly dorsal. In 
Teleosts the acusticum also extends laterad covering and sub- 
merging to a greater or less extent the spinal fifth tract. The 
first condition, that in Amia, is evidently the simpler. In Uro- 
deles and Petromyzon (Ahlborn) the spinal (ascending) V occu- 
pies a superficial position. The results of His and Minot on 



24 Journal of Comparative Neurology. 

the development of the oblongata of the human brain show a 
similar submergence of the fasc. solitarius, at first a superficial 
tract, by the ventral growth of dorsal regions (Rautenlippe)/ 
and I have no doubt that when the development of the oblong- 
ata in Teleosts is studied with this point in view, a similar 
change will be found to take place here and at some stage the 
spinal V tract to be superficial as in Urodeles and Ganoids. 

Among Teleosts there exist wonderful modifications in 
the development of these systems. The simplest condition is 
found in the two representatives of the order Haplomi which 
were examined, Esox and Fundidiis, where the regions have as 
great a cephalo caudal extension as in Ganoids and no fusions 
occur. In the Acanthopteri there is a fusion of the tubercula 
acustica across the meson, constant in the representatives of 
the four of its families that were examined. In Clupea the 
acusticums are fused and more concentrated, so that the appear- 
ance is that of a lobe of the cerebellum. In the representatives 
of the other two orders, there is a more or less marked develop- 
ment of the communis system, especially of the preauditory por- 
tion of it, together with a more or less evident concentration of 
oblongatal structures (cephalization) which has not yet been 
properly estimated. Amiurus is simplest, with no secondary fu- 
sion of any portion of the oblongata, although the preauditory 
portion of the fasciculus communis tract is greatly developed. 
In the Eventognathi there exists an increasing complexity in the 
structure of the fasciculus communis, and fusion of the cephalic 
end (preauditory), of the two tracts as well as of the acusticums 
occurs. In Notemigonus the relation is simplest since here the 
lobi vagi do not overlap the fused lobi trigemini as occurs in 
other cyprinoids, notably Cyprmiis. In the Catostomidae, the 
development is more marked. Here (Catostomus) the enormous 
lobi vagi extend cephalad over the lobi trigemini so as to near- 
ly or quite conceal it and the fused acusticums, and there is a 



^ "Within a few days the Rautenlippe unites with the main fold of the zone 
and continues to grow toward the median ventral line passing outside of the 
tractus solitarius, which thus becomes buried, and, instead of lying super- 
ficially, is thereafter deep below the outer surface." Miaot, p. 666- 



Kingsbury, Oblongata in Fishes. 25 

third though small fusion of the lobi vagi. It is a difficuit mat- 
ter to represent by diagram the successive degrees of complex- 
ity in the teleosts which lead up to the sucker {Catostomiis) as 
their climax. It has however been attempted in Figs. 30-33. 
When other orders and famiHes of teleosts are examined other 
modifications and degrees of development will doubtless be 
found to exist, and in other families of the orders represented 
here ; while in other genera of the families, conditions may be 
found which will bridge over the differences between the fami- 
lies or orders, so that any generalization from the relations so 
far found constant, is unsafe.^ The various developments of 
the nerve centers are too clearly dependent on the extent and 
functional activity of the regions or organs innervated to have 
much morphological value attached to them. The cause of the 
fusions that occur seems a difficult matter and no attempt has 
been made to determine in how far the interference of the cra- 
nium or ear during development may be responsible. Surely 
however from such a form as Amiurus with widely separated 
acusticums, it would be hard to derive a cyprinoid with fused 
acusticums and lobi trigemini. 

Strong's work on the cranial nerves of Amphibia has been 
previously mentioned as the direct inspirer of these obser- 
vations and it seems to the writer a most helpful step toward 
the comprehension of the cranial nerves of vertebrates in offer- 
ing grounds for the homologization of the nerve roots through- 
out the vertebrate series, and thereby the regions of the oblon- 
gata with which they are associated ; and in the determination 
of the components of the nerves, their origin and peripheral 
distribution, to assist the facts of development in the solution 
of the problems of the morphology of the vertebrate head and 



^ A careful study of the brain of the different orders and families of the 
teleostei has never been made and seems to be a piece of work much needed. 
Mayer undertook such a study of the teleost brain to make it the base of classi- 
fication. His work was evidently superficial and his figures indefinite or in- 
correct. The Herricks in this country have done much in the study of the 
teleost brain. The bony fishes would certainly offers a good field for testing 
the value of the brain in taxonymic work. The results so far gained suggest 
that some interesting results may be gained. 



26 Journal of Comparative Neurology. 

the comparison of spinal and cranial nerves. Strong's conclu- 
sions as to the components of the cranial nerves of Ichthyop- 
sida may perhaps be best given in his own words : ' * We have 
seen that in the cranial nerves of the higher fishes there are 
three kinds of cutaneous nerves distinguishable by peculiarities 
of their fibers, of their distribution, and of their internal ori- 
gin, i. e., (i) mixed fibers of a general cutaneous character 
continuous with the posterior columns of the cord, (2) coarse 
fibers innervating the lateral line organs and terminating cen- 
trally in the differentiated tuberculum acusticum, and (3) fine 
fibers innervating the terminal buds (coarse in Selachians and 
innervating the ampullae ? ) and terminating centrally ( princi- 
pally) in the lobus trigemini. The latter, i. e., (3), is possibly 
not completely differentiatiated. Among the Cyclostomes, it 
seems probable that this specialization has not been carried so 
far, but this is not yet sufficiently known." In addition and disre- 
garding here the motor ( non-ganglionated ) components was 
recognized the fasciculus commimis component, composed of 
fine myelinic or amyelinic fibers which constitute the ( visceral ) 
nerves of the alimentary tract. Speaking of its great develop- 
ment in fishes, he says: ''Its great development in fishes is 
correlated with the development of the gills, and where these 
are in process of reduction or lost it is correspondingly re- 
duced " (p. 190). Thus then in addition to the motor nerves, 
there exist in the cranial nerves, components as follows : — (a) 
general cutaneous, (b) lateral line, (c) end-bud, and (d) splanch- 
nic ; and these having their central connections in or through 
(a) the ascending V (spinal V tract), (b) tuberculum acusti- 
cum, (c) lobus trigemini and (d) lobus vagi — fasciculus com- 
munis. 

In regard to the relation of the last two regions, the ac- 
counts of different writers introduced difficulties that prevented 
conclusions at all definite being reached. The difficulty, upon 
a study of the oblongata, shows itself to be due largely to the 
careless application of the same term in teleosts and elasmo- 
branchs to structures which are not homologous, and for this 
obscuration both Goronowitsch and Mayser appear in a degree 



Kingsbury, Oblongata in Fishes, 27 

responsible. Goronowitsch, in the readiness with which he re- 
cognized the fibers arising from the so-called lobus trigemini in 
Acipenser as fine as compared with the fibers from the dorsal 
tracts, favored by his determination to find in the cranial nerves 
the dorsal and ventral roots of the spinal nerves ; and Mayser, 
in applying ( first ) the name lobus trigemini previously used in 
the elasmobranch brain to a structure in the cyprinoid brain 
without determining their complete homology. 

Under such circumstances attempts to completely homolo- 
gize the nerves in Ichthyopsida must fail without a recognition 
of this trouble, and as soon as it is recognized many points be- 
fore inexplicable are cleared up. 

In Elasmobranchs there exists upon the dorsal side of the 
oblongata an elevated region which is simply a continuation caud- 
ad of the corpus restiforme, and to this the name of lobus trigemini 
was quite generally applied ( by Miklucho-Maclay ; Viault, 
Rohon, Gegenbaur). Since it is a direct continuation of the 
corpus restiforme, that name, as used by some ( Stannius ) also 
includes it. It is partially covered by a caudal extension of the 
molecular layer of the cerebellum which also covers the dorsal 
tracts laterad of it. Beneath it a large nerve root arises, the 
most dorsal of the nerves of the V-VII complex. This is un- 
doubtedly the nerve from the corpus restiforme of Stannius in- 
nervating the 'mucous' canals. Ewart describes the most dor- 
sal of the nerves distributed to the lateral line system in Lae- 
inargus as the ophthalmicus superficialis. ' * This nerve arises by 
a large root from the so-called trigeminal nucleus which occu- 
pies the most dorsal portion of the medulla." It communicates 
freely with the buccal. VI Ic of Strong '94 in Galeocerdo seems 
to be the same root. 

It seems probable that the ''lobus trigemini " of Acipenser 
( and other sturgeons, probably ) is the same structure found in 
sharks and the nerves are homologous. In examining transec- 
tions through this region of the Acipenser brain, the impression 
was strong that there had been a partial folding in of the cere- 
bellar crest and fusion of the two surfaces. The occurrence of 
large (Purkinje) cells on both sides of the cerebellar crest 



28 Journal of Comparative Neurology. 

strengthens the beHef. The comparision of sections of Acipen- 
ser with the figures of Rohon and Sanders of the correspond- 
ing region of the shark brain indicates that the structure is the 
same in both. The homology entertained, but rejected, by- 
Strong of Trig. II dors, with VI I u of Osborn in Cryptobranch- 
tis (my Vllb' in Nectiinis) springing from an island of ground 
substance upon the dorsal side of the oblongata, is perhaps 
worthy of being further considered. It was rejected by Strong 
mainly (apparently) because the conflicting use of **lobus tri- 
gemini " necessitated other homologies. Were it correct there 
would persist in reduced state in shark-like ganoids and the 
larger urodeles the remnant of an elasmobranchian structure 
(^corpus restiformef). Therefore, not to devote more space to 
it here, it would seem to me that a consideration of the rela- 
tions of the ''lobe" and its nerve root and comparison with 
ganoids leaves it highly probable that the root from the lobus 
trigemini in sharks is the homologue (in part) of Vllb Strong, 
the lateral line component, and the ''lobus trigemini" will 
prove on investigation to be a modified portion of the acusti- 
cum system. 

In teleosts the lobus trigemini is but the enlarged cephalic 
portion of the fasciculus communis system ; fused in the Even- 
tognathi, unfused in Amiiinis (Nematognathi ?), while in other 
teleosts examined no lobus trigemini as a special hypertrophy 
exists. The root from this lobe, the "dorsal geniculate root of 
the Vth " is the homologue of Vllaa in Amphibia and is pres- 
ent whether a lobus trigemini as such exists or not. This is 
not saying, however, that they are in each case exactly equiva- 
lent. 

In view of the foregoing statements the following may give 
help on some of the points and problems raised by Strong. 
In the first place, the nerve of Goronowitsch from the "lobus 
trigemini " of Acipe^iser is not the homologue of the geniculate 
V of teleosts which is the representative of his dorsal root of 
the seventh (Frd.) from the fasciculus communis (lobus vagi). 
The recognition of Tlld. as a lateral line root clears up the dif- 
ficulties occasioned by its distribution to the ophthalmicus su- 



Kingsbury, Oblongata in Fishes. 29 

perficialis VII, buccal and otic and hyomandibular. We should 
expect the root from the " lobus trigemini " of sharks to be 
coarse fibered if it innervates the lateral line organs. If Ewart 
is correct, the Ampullae of Lorenzini would be more closely 
related to the lateral line organs and not representatives in 
Elasmobranchs of end-buds of higher forms. ^ In Amphibia, 
though no differentiated lobus trigemini exists, it is represented 
morphologically by the cephalic portion of the fasciculus com- 
munis in connection with the preauditory root from this tract, 
Vllaa Strong. Of the three alternatives offered in the inter- 
pretation of the lobus trigemini and the innervation of the end- 
buds, when it is recognized that the lobus trigemini and lobus 
vagi are but differentiated parts of the fasciculus communis 
tract, the first two lose their point and the third, which Strong 
regarded as most probable, stands, with this modification, that 
the lobus vagi and lobus trigemini, of teleosts, instead of being 
distinct structures partially equivalent, are but the differentiated 
pre- and postauditory parts of the same system. The question 
of the innervation of the end-buds remains as difficult and as 
far from a satisfactory solution as before. It is quite possible 
that, as Strong suggests, two kinds of fibers from different por- 
tions of the fasciculus communis tract may have distinct distri- 
butions — one end-bud and the other splanchnic. 

The view apparently entertained by AUis ('95) that the fas- 
ciculus communis gives rise to fibers distributed exclusively to 
end-buds is certainly not correct, since very much the larger 
part of the sensory (ganglionated) fibers of the vago-glosso- 
pharyngeal spring in Amia (and in other Teleostomes) from that 
tract. 

That the end-buds on the head of teleosts receive their 
innervation from both pre- and post-auditory portions of the 
tract is undoubtedly true from the investigations of Wright, 
Allis and Strong. In Amiiinis (Wright) and the carp barbel 
end-buds in the skin of the head are plentiful, and doubtless 
when other cyprinoids and suckers are examined the end-buds 



^Since they are innervated by the same nerves as are the lateral line organs. 
See also Cole, '96. 



30 Journal of Comparative Neurology. 

will be found equally or more abundant, and in forms with a 
weak development of the fasciculus communis system, they will 
be few or wanting in the skin. In Amia the preauditory com- 
munis component forms the palatine nerve and contributes 
fibers to the rami maxillarcs infoior and sjipenor which go to re- 
gions where end-buds occur (AUis '95). 

In Animrus (Wright '84) from the fasciculus communis 
(Lob. trig.) component are derived the most of the fibers of the 
(i) rmnus lateralis trigeinmi, (2) the rajmis ophthalmicus profundus, 
from which the nasal barblets receive their innervation, (3) the 
ramus maxillaris, which innervates the large maxillary barblet 
and (4) the ramus mandibularis, innervating the mental barblets, 
and (5) the palatine and cutaneous palatine nerves. These 
facts, while they indicate the innervation of end-buds from the 
fasciculus communis component, raise many difficult questions 
bearing on the basis of homology of cranial nerves in higher 
and lower forms. While the lobus trigemini root was consid- 
ered as part of the Vth, the distribution of its fibers to form 
such recognized trigeminal nerves as the pht J lahnicus profundus 
and mandibularis and maxillans would present no great difficult- 
ies ; but they do appear as soon as it is recognized that the so- 
called geniculate root of the Vth of teleosts is the homologue 
of Vllaa (Strong) of Amphibia. In Amia the difficulty is as 
great as in Amiiwus. 

It is however only when the nerve is regarded as a unit with 
constant central connections (roots) and constant branches (rami) 
that the difficulty has full force. Certainly suggestive in this 
connection is Miss Piatt's work on the development of the peri- 
pheral nervous system in Nccturus. The idea that may be 
gained there, ^ broadly stated, is that the central and peripheral 

^ " I will go no further than to add that, as far as the lateral line organs are 
concerned, their fibers choose the nearest and most direct path to the auditory 
centers in the brain, which seem to be also the centers of the entire lateral line 
system, yet both development and comparative anatomy tend to show that it is a 
matter of little moment whether these fibers enter the brain by one nerve root 
or another " Piatt, p. 505. 

" This study, therefore, leads to the conclusion that it is of little moment 
whether the motor and sensory fibers belonging to the primitive nerves of any 



Kingsbury, Oblojigata in Fishes. 31 

terminations of a nerve fiber are important and constant, while 
the intermediate course is due more to advantage and may vary. 
Viewing this from the standpoint of two opposed theories of 
nerve development and the relation of nerve fiber and ganglion 
cell, it would be in one case the central and in the other the 
peripheral region that is the center of growth and constant ; 
that is, in the first case the ganglion would be fixed and the 
course the outgrowing neurites took to reach their destination 
would be the easiest or shortest path ; in the second case, the 
nerve fiber, developing as a chain of cells from the ectoderm 
would take the easiest or shortest course to the appropriate 
brain-center. It is the latter view of nerve development that 
Miss Piatt's researches support. Discussion of this point will be 
avoided here ; however, it seems that in certain fishes end-buds 
occur in the skin of the head and in the mouth, and the nerve- 
fibers entering the brain through a root near the Vlllth nerve, 
reach their peripheral destination (the end-buds) through num- 
erous nerves. In Amphibia (and higher forms) the end-buds 
are confined to the mouth and the fibers of this root are distrib- 
uted only to pharyngeal nerves. 

Turning to the brain of Urodeles {Necturus etc.) in view of 
the conditions in fishes (especially Amid), it is comparatively 
safe to homologize the whole region dorsad of the spinal Vth 
tract with the acusticuin ; this is sustained by the ental origin 
of the Vlllth nerve and the nerves of the lateral line system. 
The tailless Amphibia cannot be included yet. Very interest- 
ing would be a study of the development and structure of the 
oblongata of the Anura to determine the regions and their ho- 
mology. It might facilitate comparison between higher and 
lower forms which seems unsatisfactory. The entire homology 
of the fasciculus communis system with the tractus solitarius still 



segment enter the brain by one root, by two roots, or by several, the position of 
the nerve-root being in great measure an expression of the co-ordinate relations 
which the central nervous system subserves. The morphological value of the 
nerve comes from without and 'the metameric arrangement of the peripheral 
nerves is probably not primary, but occurs in adaptation to the segmentation of 
the structures they supply' (Froriep, 14, p. 590)." Piatt, p. 540. 



32 Journal of Comparative Neurology. 

appeals to the writer as unsafe, and the opinion expressed be- 
fore ('95) is adhered to, — that the data for a full comparison of 
higher and lower forms are insufficient. 

Summary. 

The annexed table may summarize the nerve components 
of the typical forms examined, and the following points recap- 
itulate the general results of the study of the oblongata, illus- 
trated by diagrams of figures 27-36. 

1. Three systems constitute the centers for the ganglion- 
ated (sensory) nerves of Teleostomes and form the dorsal por- 
tion of the oblongata : they are, (i) the spinal Vth tract (sys- 
tem), (2) the fasciculus communis system and (3) the acusticum 
system. 

2. The first gives fibers to the Vth nerve and in Amia, 
Ainiurus, Perca, Roccus and Lepomis at least, a small contingent 
to the Xth. 

3. The second furnishes fibers to the VII, and IX and X 
(visceral and end-bud). 

4. The third furnishes fibers to the VII and IX and X 
(lateral line system), and gives rise to the Vlllth. 

5. The lobus trigemini and lobus vagi of some Teleosts 
are but the differentiated pre- and post-auditory portions of the 
fasciculus communis system. 

6. The ''dorsal geniculate root of the Vth" of teleosts 
is the homologue of Vllaa (Strong) of Amphibia. 

7. The lobus trigemini of Elasmobranchs it is believed 
will prove more closely related to the acusticum of ganoids and 
teleosts ; it is clearly the caudal continuation of the restis of 
the elasmobranch brain. 

8. No secondary fusions of regions were found in Amiurus 
(Nematognathi) and Esox and Fuftdtdus ( Haplomi). 

9. Fusion of the acusticums occurred in the Acanthopteri 
(4 families) and in the Isospondyli [Chcped). 

10. Fusion of the acusticums and lobi trigemini is found 
in the Cyprinidae, 



Kingsbury, Oblongata in Fishes. 



33 



11. Catostonms (Catostomidae ?) showed in addition to 
the fusions in the cyprinidae, a fusion of the lobi vagi. 

12. The acusticum was in every case covered by a caudal 
extension of the molecular laver of the cerebellum. 











Amphibia 


Ganoids 




Teieosts 




NERVE 


COMPO- 
NENT 


DISTRIBUTION 


CENTER 


NECTURU8 


AMIA 


PERCA 


AMIURUS 


CAT08T0- 
MUS 


V. 


1. 

2. 
3. 


general cuta- 
neous (?) 
motor (?) 
motor 


Sp. Vth. tr. 

mesen. 
motor nidus* 


present 
strong 


present 


present, 
well de- 
fined 


present 


present 


VI. 


1. 


motor 


motor nidus 












VII. 


Vllab 
Vllb. 

Vllaa 


motor 
lateral line 

system 
end-bud and 

visceral (?) 


motor nidus 
acusticum 

fasciculus 
communis 


present, 2 
roots 


present, 1 
root 


present 

" medi- 
um 


present 

" very 
large 


present 
" large 


VIII. 


1(2) 


ear 


acusticum 


present 


present 


present 


present 


present 


IX. 


1. 
2. 
3. 


lateral line 

system 
end-bud and 

visceral (?) 
motor 


acusticum 

fasciculus 

communis 
motor nidus 


present 


1 root 
present 


present 

" (?) 


present 
" small 


present 
u (?» 


X. 


1. 
2. 

3. 


motor 
end-bud (?^ 
and visceral 

general cuta- 
neous (?) 


motor nidus 
fasciculus 
communis 

sp. Vth. tr. 


present 


present 

present 
small 


present 

" medi- 
um 


present, 
quite 
large 

present, 
small 


present, 
large 

(?) 



*The motor nerves are not discussed in this paper, and so are not regarded in the table* 
The nerve components are given as they were found in the study of the brain in these forma. 



LITERATURE CITED. 

^%'l. Ahlborn, Fr. Untersuchungen liber das Gehirn der Petrorayzonten« 
Zeitsch, f. wiss. Zool. Vol. XXXIX, pp. 191-294. 

^%Z. Allis, E. p. The anatomy and development of the lateral line system 
in Amia calva. Jour. Morph. Vol. II, pp. 463-566. 

'95. Allis, E. P. The cranial muscles and cranial and first spinal nerves is 
Amia calva. Jour. Morph. Vol. XI, pp. 485-491. 

'91. BURCKHARDT, R, Untersuchungen am Hirn und Geruchsorgan von 
Triton und Ichthyophis. Zeitsch. f. wiss Zool. Vol. LII, pp. 369-403. 

'96. Cole, F. J. On the cranial nerves of Chimaera monstrosa : with a dis- 
cussion of the lateral line system and of the morphology of the chorda 
tympaui. Trans. Roy. Soc. Edinburgh, Vol. XXXVIII, Pt. Ill, p. 631, 

'88. EwART, J. C. On the cranial nerves of Elasmobranch fishes. Prelim. 
Communication, Proc. Roy. Soc. Vol. XLV, pp. 524-537, 

'89. Gaskell, W. H. On the relation between the structure, function, dis- 
tribution and origin of the cranial nerves, together with a theory of 
the origin of the nervous system of vertebrata. Jour, of Physiol. Vol, 
X, pp. 153-21 1. 

'70. Gegenbaur, Carl. Uber die Kopfnerven von Hexanchus und ihre 
Verhaltniss zur Wirbeltheorie des Schadels. Jen. Zeitsch. VI, 1870-1^ 



34 Journal of Comparative Neurology. 

'88. GoRONOWiTSCH, N. Das Gehirn und die Cranialnerven von Acipenser 

ruthenus. Morph. Jahrb. Vol. XIII, pp. 427-574. 
'91. Herrick, C. L. and C. J. Contributions to the morphology of the brain 

of bony fishes. Jotir. Covip. Neur. Vol. I, pp. 211-245. 
'92. Herrick, C. L. Ibid. Ibid, Vol. II, pp. 21-72. 
'90. His, W, Die Entwickelung des menschlichen Rautenhirns vom Ende 

ersten bis zum Beginn des dritten Monats. I Verlangertes Mark. 

AbJi'g. der Kmigl. Sac As. Gesellsch. der Wiss., Math-Phys. Classe, Vol. 

XVII, 1891, p. I. 
'95. Kingsbury, B. F. On the brain of Necturus maculatus. Jour. Comp, 

Neurology. Vol. V, pp. 139-203. 
'93, KoELLiKER, A. Handbuch der Gewebelehre des Menschen. Zweite 

Band. Erste Halfte. Leipzig, 1893. 
'64. Mayer, F. J. C. Ueber den Bau des Gehirns der Fische. Verhandl. der 

K. Leopold. Car. Akad. Vol. XXX, 1864. 
*8i. Mayser, p. Vergleichende anatomische Studien iiber das Gehirn der 

Knochenfische mit besonderer Beriicksichtigung der Cyprinoiden. 

Zeitsch.f. wiss. Zool. Vol. XXXVI, pp. 259-364. 
'70. Miklucho-Maclay, N. von. Beitrage zur vergleichenden Neurologic 

der Wirbelthiere. Leipzig, 1870. 
'92. Minot, C. S. Human Embryology. Wm. Wood and Co. New York, 

1893- 

*88, Osborx, H. F. a contribution to the internal structure of the Amphib- 
ian brain. Jour. Morph. Vol. II, pp. 51-96. 

'96. Platt, Julia B. Ontogenetic differentiation of the ectoderm in Nec- 
turus. Study II. On the development of the peripheral nervous sys- 
tem. Quart. Jour. Micr. Set. Vol. XXXVIII, pp. 485-547. 

*77. RoHON. Das Centralorgan des Nervensystems der Selachier. Wien. Acad. 
Denkschr. Vol. XXXVIII, 1877. 

*86. Sanders, A. Contributions to the anatomy of the central nervous sys- 
tem in vertebrate animals. Plagiostomata. Phil. Trans. VoL 
CLXXVII, Pt. II, pp. 5^33-766. 

^49. Stannius, H. Das peripherische Nervensystem der Fische, anatomisch 
und histologisch untersucht. Rostock, 1849. 

*94. Strong, O. S. Dorsal view of the cranial nerves of the Leopard shark, 
{Galeocerdo maculatus, Ranzani) Marine Biol. Lab., Wood's Holl, 
Mass., July, 1894. 

*95. Strong, O. S. The cranial nerves of Amphibia. A contribution to the 
morphology of the vertebrate nervous system. Jour. Morph. Vol. X, 
pp. 101-230. 

*94. Turner, W. A. The central connections and relations of the Trigemi- 
nus, Vago-glossopharyngeal, Vago-accessory and Hypoglossal nerves. 
/our. Anat. and Physiol. Vol. XXIX, pp. 

'76. ViAULT, Fr. Structure de centres nerveux des plagiostomes. Arch, de 
Zool. Vol. V, 1876. 

'84. Wright, R. R. On the skin and cutaneous sense-organs of Amiurus. 
Proc. Canadian Institute, N. S. Vol. II, No. 3, pp. 251-269. 

'84. Wright, R. R. On the nervous system and sense-organs of Amiurus. 
Ibid. pp. 352-386. 



Kingsbury, Oblojigata in Fishes. 35 

EXPLANATION OF FIGURES. 
It is impossible to illustrate this paper adequately since of each form sev- 
eral figures at different levels would be desirable in order to show the gradual 
changes undergone in passing from the myel into the oblongata and the appear- 
ance of the structures discussed in the foregoing. Dorsal views of the oblongata 
of Amiay Atnmnis, Perca and Cyprinus are given. Series of 6 figures of 
transections of the oblongata in Amia, 5 in Amiurus and two Perca are given 
to illustrate the modifications, to which are added 8 diagrammatic figures of 
other forms for comparison. All figures are drawn by the aid of the microscope 
and camera lucida except figures 2 and 5 and the diagrams of plate V. Figure 
2 is based upon a photograph. 

Abbreviations. 

ac. — acusticum (system). ni. — motor nidus of the Xth nerve. 

cbl. — cerebellum. p. I. f. — posterior longitudinal fasci- 
cbl, cr. — cerebellar crest. cuius. 

c. d. — dorsal cornu. sp. V. — spinal (ascending) Vth tract. 

cm. i. — commissura infima Halleri. s. t. tr. — secondary vago-trigeminartract. 

f. c. — fasciculus communis (system). t. i. — tuberculum impar (fused preau- 
/. /. — lateral line nerve. ditory part of fasciculus communis 

/. /. — lobus trigemini (preauditory por- systems). 

tion of the fasciculus communis). Vllaa. — preauditory fasciculus com- 
/. V. — lobus vagi (postauditory por- munis root. 

tion of the fasciculus communis). Vllab. — facial proper. 

M. c . — Mauthner cell. Vllb. — acusticum root. 

Mesen. — Mesencephal. Xm. — motor root of the Xth nerve. 

myc. — myelocoele. Xs. — sensory root of the Xth nerve. 

PLATE I. 

Fig. I. Dorsal view of the oblongata of Amia. The metatela is removed 
in this and the following aspects since it would interfere with the regions de- 
sired to be shown. 

Fig. 2. Dorsal aspect of the oblongata of Cyprinus. Metatela removed. 
The brain cavities were injected with alcohol and the vagal lobes (/. v.) were 
apparently somewhat spread apart thereby. The cerebellum has been removed 
and the cut surface only is seen. 

Fig. J. Lateral aspect of the oblongata of Amia to illustrate the superfi- 
ciality and course of the spinal V tract to the Vth nerve. 

Fig. 4. Dorsal aspect of the oblongata of Perca. The cerebellum has 
been removed and the cut surface alone is seen. 

Fig. J. Dorsal view of the oblongata of Amiurus. 

Fig. 6. A transection through the myel of Afnia near the brain. The dor- 
sal cornua of the cinerea at this level are considerably larger than in a section 
of typical myel. 

Fig. 7. Transection of the myel of Amiurus. 
PLATE II. 

Fig. 8. Amiurus. Transection of the myel (oblongata?) near the metatela 
showing the enormously enlarged dorsal cornua. 

Fig. g. Amiurus. Transection immediately caudad of the metatela through 
the beginning of the fasciculus communis system [Cm. i.). The dorsal cornua 
have diminished slightly in size and the spinal Vth tract has appeared. 



36 Journal of Comparative Neurology. 

Fig. 10. Amiurus. Transection farther cephalad, the fasciculus communis 
is dorsal (/. z/.), the spinal Vth and the almost entirely reduced dorsal cornua 
are displaced. 

Fig. II. Amiurus. Transection at the level of the exit of the Vllth roots. 
Intermediate between this and figure lo is figure 24 at the entrance of the IX?, 
showing the developing acusticums. 

Fig. 12. Perca. Transection of the oblongata at the exit of the Xth nerve. 
A component from the spinal Vth tract is shown. 

P^S- ^3- Amia. Transection through the myel showing the enlarged dor- 
sal cornua. (Comp. fig, 6 and figs. 15-18.) 

Fig. 14. Noteftiigonus. Transection through the oblongata at the exit of 
the Xth nerve. 

PLATE III. 

Fig. 75. Amia. Transection of the oblongata at the first (recognizable) 
appearance of the fasciculus communis system. 

Fig. 16. A??iia. Transection farther cephalad near the caudal appearance 
of the acusticum and the cerebellar crest. 

Fig. 17. Amia. Transection at the level of the IXth. 

Fig. j8. Amia. Transection of the oblongata at the exit of the VII- 
Vlllth nerves. 

Fig. ig. Perca. Transection of the oblongata caudad of the Vlllth 
showing the fusion of the acusticums. 

Fig. 20. Esox. Transection of the oblongata at the exit of the Vlllth. 

PLATE IV. 

Fig. 21. Catostomus. Transection of the brain at the exit of the Xth. A 
fusion of the vagal lobes is shown. (Comp. figure 14 of the corresponding 
level in Notemigonus.) 

Fig. 22. Catostomus. Transection farther cephalad including the tuber- 
culum impar, the acusticums and the cephalic projection of the lobus vagi. 

Fig. 23. Roccus. Transection of the oblongata at the exit of the Xth nerve. 

Fig. 24. Amiurus. Transection of the oblongata at the level of the en- 
trance of IX? 

Fig, 2^. Catostomus. Transection of the oblongata farther cephalad than 
figure 22 where the tuberculum impar has been replaced by the fused acusticums. 

Fig. 26. Exoglossum. Transection through the oblongata showing slight 
overlapping of the tuberculum impar by the lobus vagi and the first appearance 
of the acusticum. 

PLATE V. 

Ten diagrams to illustrate the regions and nerves discussed which are de- 
marcated in different colors. 

Figs. 27-2g. Diagrams of the sensory (ganglionated) oblongatal nerve 
roots in Necturus ( Amphibia) Ai7iia and Amittrus. 

Figs. jT, JO, J2, jj. Diagrams of the oblongatas of Amia, Perca, Notemi" 
gonus and Cyprinus to illustrate the increasing complexity and associated fusions. 
The left side in Perca and A7nia are shown as though the fasciculus communis 
system were exposed, — as if the covering part of the acusticum had been dis- 
sected away. (Comp. figs. I and 4.) 

Figs. J4-36. Transections through the oblongata of Amiurus, Amia, &nd 
Perca respectively. Fig. 34 caudad of Vlllth ; fig. 35 near the IXth and fig. 36 
cephalad of the Xth. 



Journal of Comparative Neurology. Vol. VII 



PLATE I. 







^\mia. ■ 'X 










ip.\'- Ir. 






m 4 






'iM.X f /M if. 







Journal of Comparative Neurology. Vol. VII. plate ii. 



/ 








? 






p, I J. Ami 







X / 



P: ij- 







V "^^ 



\J^-^ ;0^=^^ v:' ;^; 



\ / ^ ' .i'^t^^^^fex-^ 



\f 



^>^x 






;v5=-' .; vii./c/. 
J- '■ '''■ AniiuiUiT. 



Journal of Comparative Neurolooy. WA. YW. plate in 



/" 







^ 



/< - 

ni. s/>.V . 
















It \ ;; 



is?^'' 



i 



E<-."x.- 



19 



20 



ou 



rnal of Comparative Neurology. Vol. VII. 



PLATE IV. 












*: 



■f^ 



■■■• Wt^^^- : :' ''^^- X ■■•.. :k4 




Exoglossum 



JOUKNAI. <>|- CoMl'AKAIIVK NkI KoloiiN, \'»)1. VU. 



Pl.AI K V 




f'i;^' I = The acusticum isystem), auJ the nerves issuing therefrom. 

I I = The preauditory portion of the fasciculus communis system, 
and the nerve root issuing therefrom. 

[ = The postauditory jMsrtion of the fasciculus communis system 

and the nerv'e roots therefrom. 

i^SI ^= The dorsal column of the myel and the tract continuous with 
it in the oblongata, the spinal Vth tract. 



THE ENCEPHALIC EVAGINATIONS IN GANOIDS. 
By B. F. Kingsbury, 

Ithaca, N. V. 
{mth Plate VI.) 

The great interest attaching to the extent and interpreta- 
tion of the membranous roof of the vertebrate brain cephalad 
of the postcommissure, and the number and significance of the 
outgrowths occurring in this region may serve as an excuse for 
the isolated pubhcation of a few facts upon the latter in Ganoids, 
especially since the presentation of the results of a more gen- 
eral study of the ganoid brain seems somewhat remote. 

The new and important points are two: (i) the presence 
in the adult Amia of the first epiphysial vesicle of Hill and its 
innervation from the left habena ; and (2) the existence in Amia 
and Lepidosteus of lateral cephalic and caudal extensions of the 
cavity caudad of the vehm transversiini of Kupffer, constituting 
considerable diverticula. More emphasis it is felt should be 
laid on the existence of the " dorsal sack " and the presence of 
the paraphysis as distinct structures. A word may be added 
upon the metaplexus in Lepidosteus which presents some inter- 
esting features in connection with the diverticula from the 
diatela. 

Epiphysis. Great interest has always attached to this struc- 
ture, so constant in the vertebrate series, as the remnant in a 
greater or less degree of preservation, of a sense-organ once of 
importance in vertebrate ancestors. Recently fresh interest has 
been added by the studies of numerous observers which go 
strongly to show (though not conclusively as yet, it is felt) the 
presence of two, or possibly more, evaginations from this re- 
gion of the brain roof. By Hill, Studnicka, and Locy is enter- 
tained the view that it is the more caudal of these, the epiphy- 
sis proper, which is most developed in the lamprey and persists 



38 Journal of Comparative Neurology. 

in all craniota in a more reduced state ; the cephalic is the 
** second epiphysial vesicle " m Pctromyzon, the parapineal or- 
gan of Studnicka ('95). It occurs in embryo teleosts and Amia 
(Hill), and in reptiles becomes separated from the brain as the 
well known parietal eye of lizards. There is, however, no case 
so far as known to me where they might not be interpreted as 
but modified parts of the same primary evagination,^ were it 
not for the observation of Locy of three pairs of depressions 
upon the medullary plate of the shark embryo ; the first enter 
the optic evaginations ; the second he traced to the epiphysis ; 
while the third pair was lost. 

As has been said by others, the need now is the accumula- 
tion of facts showing the relations in this region of the brain in a 
wide range of forms, especially embryologic data which will 
throw light on the first appearance of these (or this) evaginations 
in the various forms. It is as contributing a little to the interpre- 
tation of these structures that the following is offered. It has 
just been stated that Hill has already described the existence of 
two epiphysial structures in the embryo Amia. The cephalic 
evagination (epiphysis I) in embryos of 10 mm. length is an 
ellipsoid sack lying upon the left side of the epiphysial stalk 
(epiphysis II) ; its cavity is connected with the cavity of the 
brain. Likewise in 13 mm. Amia the cavity is in communica- 
tion with the brain, but in embryos 1 5 mm. long the connection 
is severed and epiphysis I lies upon the left side of epiphysis II. 
It appears that the adult or later embryos were not examined. 
In Salmo (the teleost more especially studied ; others were 
CatostomiiSy Stizostedion and Lepomis) the connection is severed 
in 13 mm. embryos ; in 25 mm. Salmo (160 days old) the cav- 
ity is obliterated and in 2 year fish it is recognizable only in 



^ Leydig, Beraneck and Francotte state that two distinct outgrowths from 
the roof of the diencephal in reptiles occur. Klinckostrom, Selenka and Soren- 
sen however think there is but one evagination. Accessory parietal eves which 
have been observed in certain lizards appear variable in number and cannot yet 
be interpreted. Likewise in Petro?nyzon, earlier stages of the development of 
these structures are wanting and the cephalic vesicle may prove, as believed by 
some, to be derived from the caudal. 



Kingsbury, Encephalic Evaginations in Ganoids. 39 

one fish as a small mass of cells lying to the left of the epiphysis 
(epiphysis II). In adult Amia, however, this structure persists 
as a hollow vesicle closely applied to the left of the epiphysis 
(Epiph. II) and with it enveloped by the dorsal sack in which 
they are suspended as by a fold. Epiphysis I lies almost di- 
rectly dorsad of the supracommissure and receives a strong fas- 
ciculus of non-medullated fibers from the left habena (Fig. i). 
This point is important since it strengthens the homology of 
this with the parapineal organ (Studnicka) of Petromyzojt which 
has been found to have fiber connection with the left habena.^ 

Lepidosteits (adult) was examined and no trace of the epiphy- 
sis I was found although a small cluster of cells in the proper 
location possibly represented it in much reduced state (as in 2 
year Salmo, Hill). No trace of it has been found in adult Poly- 
odon or Acipenscr, in which this region was subjected to exami- 
nation by Studnicka '96 and Goronowitsch. Kupffer does not 
show it in embryo Acipenser. 

Dorsal Sack. Goronowitsch, I believe, was the first to 
employ this term. It has since been employed by Mrs. Gage, 
Herrick, Humphrey and Wilder, and seems preferable to the 
other terms applied to this region of the brain, which seems 
worthy of a distinct name, whatever its morphologic value. ^ 
It is the cavity included beneath the diatela caudad of the vel- 
um transversum, Kupffer. In Ganoids, especially the sturge- 
ons, it is voluminous, and as described above, in Amia it envel- 
opes the epiphysis which thus appears suspended in it by a 
mesal fold. It does not seem to be a true evagination, such as 
the epiphysis and paraphysis, but a dorsal extension of the dia- 
coele, due perhaps entirely to mechanical causes and given the 



^ The suggestion of Locy that the difference in size between the left and 
right habenas was due to this innervation, fails, since it it the right and not the 
left which is the larger, and whatever the cause of this, it is associated with a 
similar difference in the Meynert's bundles springing from them. This peculiar 
asymmetry in Petromyzon also exists in Amia. 

2 Synonymy; Zirbelpolster, Burckhardt ; Parencephalon, Kupffer; Postpar- 
aphysis, Sorensen ; Vesicle of the Thalamencephalon, Parker and Balfour ; Re- 
cessus praepinealis, Leydig (?). 



40 Journal of Comparative Neurology. 

appearance of an evagination by the velum. The last structure 
has been recognized in Amphibia and Reptilia and appears of 
morphologic value. By some it has been assumed as the 
boundary between the prosencephal and diencephal. In Ainia 
it passes ventrally immediately caudad of the cerebral lobes, 
which slope at their caudal end and hence give the dorsal sack 
more volume. The velum is attached to the recurved edge of 
of the cerebral lobes and therefore the same condition of the 
latter would render greater the extent of the velum. The 
prominence of the velum in Ganoids may be in part due to the 
recurved condition of the cerebral lobe at its caudal end. 

The membranous roof caudad of this fold has a modifica- 
tion which when first observed was rather startling. There oc- 
curs on each side a lateral extension of the cavity just caudad 
of the velum, forming diverticula which divide into two limbs, 
caudal and cephalic. The latter extends cephalad just ventrad 
of the recurved edge of the cerebrum as far as the olfactory 
lobes (Figs. 3, 4). The caudal limb is even more extensive: 
closely applied to the side of the mesencephal, it reaches 
the cerebellum and the ventral portion passes farther caudad 
encountering the fifth nerve which divides it into a short 
dorsal portion and a longer ventral one, which in some brains 
at least attains the level of the ninth nerve, closely applied to 
the ventral aspect of the oblongata. 

Lepidosteiis resembles Ainia closely. The relations are 
somewhat modified however by the different shape of the cere- 
bral lobes. These do not slope away at their caudal ends 
which are more closely applied to the geminums and more 
nearly perpendicular to the dorsal surface. The recurvature of 
the dorsal edge is not so great (fig. 2). All this limits the 
capacity and extent of the dorsal sack and the size of the 
velum. The caudal extension of the dorsal sack upon the mes- 
encephal is somewhat greater than in Auiia. The epiphysis 
in Lcpidostais is in its proximal part enveloped in the dorsal sack 
and extends caudad to bend cephalad forming a V. In Ainia 
the epiphysis first passes cephalad then caudad and again ceph- 
alad, performing thus a sigmoid curve. The lateral diverticu- 



Kingsbury, Encephalic Evaginations in Gayioids, 41 

lum caudad of the velum exists, but the closer approximation 
of cerebrum and geminum renders it far less conspicuous. The 
slightly recurved lobes also do not form the interval occupied in 
A)}iia by the cephalic portion of the diverticulum, and this in 
Lepidostcus is flatter. The caudal portion is also extensive and 
reaches at least to the cerebellum, but here a complication ex- 
isted which prevented the caudal limit being ascertained; name- 
ly, the presence of similar lateral extensions of the membran- 
ous roof of the metencephal. Some distance caudad of the 
metatela lateral pockets appear upon the sides of the oblongata 
(or myel) which farther cephalad are seen to be from the meta- 
plexus. From the point where they join the metaplexus ceph- 
alad there is a lateral extension of the cavity, or rather more 
correctly, a series of lateral extensions which in some regions 
reach to the ventral surface of the brain and almost meet each 
other at the ventrimeson ( Fig. 5). There is also a projection 
of the metatela over the surface of the cerebellum. 

The membranous roof of the prosencephal, the mesal 
fold from it, the dorsal sack and velum and the metaplexus in 
Amia and Lepidostcus are lined with an endymal epithelium of 
large columnar cells which are of the appearance characteristic 
of secreting cells ; the nucleus is situated in the base and the 
cell body stains but lightly, resembling some mucous cells. 
The lateral diverticula are also lined by such cells, but only on 
their ectal side ; the ental side toward the brain, being very del- 
icate and lined with flattened cells. The membranous roof of 
the fore-brain, the velum and mesal fold are all richly supplied 
with blood vessels, or blood spaces, and the ectal surface of the 
diverticula is also similarly supplied. We cannot doubt that 
the columnar cells of the membranous portions of the brain 
roof are of use in the elaboration of the coeliolymph. Vascu- 
lar portions of the telas of the brain, generally appearing as 
plexuses, are of quite usual occurrence, and must have an im- 
portant function in the nourishment of the organ. The only 
explanation of these diverticula that appeals to me is that they 
are for the increase of secreting surface. This may be accomp- 
lished in either of two ways, by reduplication, as in the forma- 



42 Journal of Comparative Neurology. 

tion of folds and villi in the alimentary tract and plexuses in the 
brain ; or by expansion, and it seems to be the latter method 
adopted in the brain of Aniia. In the formation of folds or 
plexuses it is necessary for the blood vessels to intrude into the 
brain cavity ; here the cavity has, as it were, come out to the 
blood vessels. The same seems to be true of the metaplexus, 
of Lepidostcus, and it is interesting to note that, whereas in Amia 
the metaplexus is richly folded, in LepidosteiLS it is entirely 
smooth save for small folds at the sides. 

Careful examination of other Ganoids may reveal conditions 
much like those existing in these two. Both Polyodon and Aci- 
penser brains arc covered with a dense layer of connective tis- 
sue which may involve such outgrowths of the diatela as here 
described. Studnicka has recently reported that in Polyptcrus the 
dorsal sack extends caudad as far as the cerebellum and the de- 
scription and figures of Waldschmidt suggest strongly even an 
exaggeration of the conditions in Amia. 

ParapJiysis. — The presence of the paraphysis in Amia has 
already been noted by Hill. In the adult it opens into the 
cavity just cephalad of the velum (Fig. 4) and possesses many 
tubular diverticula which occupy space in the velum (Fig. 3), in 
the membranous roof of the prosencephal and in the caudal 
part of the mesal fold. These are lined with a cubical or col- 
umnar epithelium which, it is important to note, is of a differ- 
ent appearance and easily distinguishable from the cells of the 
dorsal sack and membranous roof. The paraphysis does not 
seem to be a sack caused by or of the same nature as a plexus ; 
on the other hand, neither is it an evagination of the same ap- 
pearance and significance as the epiphysis and the view of His, 
Kupffer, and Leydig ('96), that it really is an epiphysis, does 
not seem correct ; the terms employed by them, vordere Epiph- 
ysis and Epiphysis I, should not be confused with the anterior 
epiphysis or epiphysis I used by others and in this article. The 
paraphysis seems a structure in itself. The cells have indeed 
the appearance of secreting cells, but of a nature different from 
those of the surrounding epithelium. 

The paraphysis also exists in Lepidosteus^ appearing much 



Kingsbury, Encephalic Evagiyiations in Ganoids. 43 

as in Ainia. Acipenser (Kupffer, Epiphysis I) and Polyodon 
(Studnicka, '96) both possess it as doubtless do other Ganoids. 
In cephalo-caudal succession we find then, on the mesal 
section of this region of the brain of Amia, the mesal fold of 
the prosotela, the paraphysis, the velum, the dorsal sack envel- 
oping epiphyses I and II, the supracommissure and then the 
epiphysis (II). 

Summary. 

1. Epiphysis I (anterior epiphysial vesicle) persists in 
adult Anna and has a strong fiber connection with the left 
habena. 

2. The cavity caudad of the velum possesses in Ainia and 
Lepidosteus lateral extensions which extend cephalad and caudad 
for a considerable distance. 

3. The paraphysis is present in Ainia and Lepidosteus and 
seems a distinct structure. 

LITERATURE CITED. 
'91. Eeraneck, E. Sur le nerf parietal et la morphologie du troisieme oeil 

des Vertebrates. Anat. Anz. Vol. VII, pp. 678-689. 
'96. Francotte, p. Contribution a I'etude de I'oeil parietal de I'epiphyse et 

de la paraphyse chez les Lacertiliens. Memoires couronnes et Memoires 

des savants etrangers. Brussels, Vol. LV, 1896. 
'93. Gage, Susanna P. The brain of Diemyctylus viridescens, from larval to 

adult life, and comparisons with the brain of Amia and Petromyzon. 

Wilder Quarter-Century Book, Ithaca, N. Y., 1893, PP- 259 313. 
'88. GORONOWITSCH, N. Das Gehirn und die Cranialnerven von Acipenser 

ruthenus. Morph. Jahrb. Vol. XIII, 1887-88, pp. 427-574. 
'91. Herrick, C. L. Contributions to the comparative morphology of the 

central nervous system. III. Topography and histology of the brain 

of certain Ganoid fishes. Jour. Comp. Neur. Vol. I, pp. 149-182. 
'94. Hill, Chas. The epiphysis of teleosts and Amia. Jour. Morph. Vol. 

IX, 1894, pp. 237-268. 
'92. His, W. Zur allgemeine Morphologie des Gehirns. Arch. f. Anatomic 

und Physiologie, Anat. Abth. 1892, pp. 346-383. 
>94. Humphrey, O. D. On the brain of the snapping turtle (Chelydra ser- 
pentina). Jour. Comp. Neur. Vol. IV, 1894, pp. 73-116. 
'92. KlinckowstroM, a. de Le premier developpement de I'oeil pineal 

I'epiphyse et le nerf parietal chez Iguana tuberculata. Anat. Anz. 

Vol. VIII, 1892-3, pp. 289-298. 
'93. Kupffer, C. von. Studien zur vergleichenden Entwicklungsgeschichte 

des Kopfes der Kranioten. I Heft. Die Entwicklung des Kopfes 

von Acipenser sturio an Medianschnitten untersucht. 



44 Journal of Comparative Neurology. 

'90. Leydig, F. Das Parietalorgan (zweite vorlaufige Mitteilung) . Biol. 

Centralblatt. Vol. X, 1890-91, pp. 278-285, 
'96. Leydig, F. Zur Kenntnis der Zirbel und Parietalorgane. Abh. d. 

Senckenbergischen natur. Ges. 1896, pp. 217-278. 
'95. LocY, Wm. a. Contribution to the .structure and development of the 

vertebrate head. Jour. Morph. Vol. XI, 1895, PP- 497-594- 
'82. Balfour, F. M. and P.vrker, W. N. On the structure and development 

of Lepidosteus. Phil. Trans. Pt. II 1SS2, pp. 361-442. 
'90. Selenka. Das Stirnorgan der Wirbelthiere. Biol. Centralblatt. Vol. X, 

pp. 323-326, 1890-91. 
'94. Sorensex, a. D. Comparative study of the epiphysis and roof of the 

diencephalon. /our. Comp. Neicr. Vol. IV, 1894, pp. 12-72; 153-170. 
'93. Sorensen, a. D. The pineal and parietal organ in Phrynosoraa coronata. 

Jour. Comp. Neur. Vol. Ill, pp. 48-50. 
'95. Studnicka, F. K. Zur anatomie der sogenannte Paraphyse des Wirbel- 

thiergehirns. Sitziingsber. d. Kdnigl. bohm. Ges. d. PViss.; Math-naturw. 

CL, No. V, 1895. 
'96. Studnicka, F. K. Beitrage zur Anatomie und Entwicklungsgeschichte 

des Vorderhirns der Cranioten. /bid. No. XV, 1S96. 
'96. Wilder, B. G. The dorsal sack, the aulix and the diencephalic flexure. 

Jour. Comp. Neur. Vol. VI, pp. 1 28- 129. 

DESCRIPTION OF FIGURES. 

Abbreviations. 

c/i. — chiasma. /ib. — habena. 

s. d. — dorsal sack. /ly. — hypophysis. 

d. I, — lateral diverticula. vitp. — metaplexus. 

epi.— epiphysis (epiphysis II.) par. — paraphysis. 

epi. I. — cephalic epiphysial vesicle vel. — velum transversum. 

(epiphysis I.) //. — optic nerve 

Fig. I . Transection of the Brain of Amia at the level of the cephalic 
epiphysial vesicle, showing its fiber connection with the left habena, and the 
lateral diverticula. The cephalic tips of the optic lobes and the connective 
tissue adjoining, which occupy space enclosed by the outer line are omitted 
to simplify the figure. 

Fig. 2. Transection of the prosencephal of Lepidosteus. to show the epiphy- 
sis (II), dorsal sack, paraphysis, and the lateral diverticula of the cavity. 

Fig. J. Transection through the prosencephal of Aviia, showing the 
epiphysis, dorsal sack, paraphysis and cephalic extensions of the diverticula. 

Fig. 4. Transection of the brain of Amia., showing the same general fea- 
tures as figure 3, but farther caudad, at the level of the opening of the para- 
physis. 

^^S' 5' Transection of the metencephal of Lepidosteus, showing the lateral 
extension of the cavity beneath the metaplexu^. 



Journal ot Comparative Neurology. Vol. VII. plate vi 




THE DEMONSTRATION OF KARYOKINESIS. 



By B. F. Kingsbury. 



From the Journal of Applied Microscopy, May, /Sg8. 
Vol. /, No. 5. Pp. 80-S3. 



Recent inquiries, one of them from an American medical college, 
seeking information as to methods of demonstrating the indirect division 
of cells, or karyokinesis, suggest that there ma}^ be others to whom as 
teachers or private workers a few hints as to material and methods will 
be helpful. Indeed, the writer's personal experience permits him to ap- 
preciate the help that may be afforded by such suggestions as are here in- 
tended. There certainly appears to be a lack of any specific suggestions 
or directions, those being most satisfactory that are contained in Whit- 
man's* Methods of Microscopical Anatomy and Von Kahlden'st 
Pathological Histology, in neither of which is there suitable information 
as to material. 

Nothing original is offered save perhaps a few observations on favor- 
able forms for American workers, the intention being simply to present 
clearly a few standard methods in use here and elsewhere by means of 
which preparations may be obtained that will fulfil most of the desider- 
ata in the demonstration of karyokinensis, i. e.\ the occurrence of all the 
stages in the same preparation, showing well the chromatic and achro- 
matic figures in cells of a size well suited for class demonstration. 

Since Schneider, in 1873, first established the occurrence in cell divi- 
sion of the intricate phenomena constituting what is variously termed 
karyokinesis, mitosis, or indirect cell (nuclear) division, we have had 
demonstration of it in all groups of animals, from the protozoa to man, 
and in plants from the algae to the higher phanerogams, and the earlier 
conceived direct division of cells has been found to be of rarer occur- 
rence. For demonstration, however, attention was soon confined to nar- 



* Whitman, C. O. Methods of Research iu Microscopical Anatomy and Embryol- 
ogy. Boston, 1885. 

fKahlden, C. vou. Methods of Pathological Histology. Translated by H. M. 
Fletcher. L,ondou, 1894. 



rower limits and a choice is given of Amphibia and the eggs of Ascaris 
megalocephalia, the parasitic round worm of the horse, and of the Echino- 
dermata (sea-urchins, etc.) Among plants, the young embryo-sack of 
Fritillaria and the developing pollen cells of the members of the Lilia- 
ceae appear to have been favorite objects for demonstration, It is inter- 
esting to observe how closely anatomies published after 1885 confine 
themselves to these three groups for illustration of cell-division, with 
other forms, of course, occasionally supplementing or suj^planting. 

The Amphibia are by far the favorites, both because of the large size 
of the cells, their availability, and the pioneer work done upon them by 
Flemming* and Rabl,t whose figures are often copied. Both the larval 
and adult animals may be used. Karyokinesis, however, is best shown 
in special localities ; in the adult the testis, corneal epithelium, and epi- 
thelium of the tongue ; in the larva the epidermis, oral and branchial 
epithelium. The epithelium of the lung and peritoneal cavity have also 
been employed. It is to be noted that the forms on which work has been 
done, and to which references in the literature apply, are almost exclu- 
sively European, Salamander and Triton, and some may not realize the 
availability in America of forms fully as serviceable as either of these. 

Of the organs above mentioned, the testis seems on some accounts 
most to be preferred, the only objection being that the results are de- 
pendent on the breeding habits of the animal, and therefoi-e on the time 
of year. Salamandra, the European form so nuich worked on, mates 
early in the spring, and, as Flemmingj first made known, spermato-gen- 
esis occurs as a yearly cycle beginning with the breeding season. After 
the deposition of the spermatozoa, there is a general increase in the size 
of the testis during the spring months, caused by a nmltiplication of the 
residual cells (spermatogonia). This is most vigorous during the late 
spring and earl}- summer. May to Jul}-. In Jul}- and the first part of 
August the final divisions take place and the maturation of the zoosperms 
begins, extending well into the fall. The winter is spent with the testis 
in a resting state, charged with ripe spermatozoa. Thus in order to ob- 
tain karyokinesis, it is necessary to use animals taken during the late 
spring or early summer. 

In America, we are favored with a larger number of forms with a 
greater range of habits, allowing us to be somewhat more independent of 
the time of year. Diemyctylus ( viridescens, represented on the Pacific 
slope by torosus), the vermillion-spotted newt, in its range and the ease 
with which it may be obtained from ponds and ditches in the eastern 
United States, is perhaps most available of our forms ; it is, however, quite 
nearly related to the European salamanders and resembles them closely 



* Flemming, W. Zellsubstanz, Kern unci Zelltheilung. Leipzig, 1S82. 
fRabl, C. Ueber Zelltheiluug. Morph. Jahrbuch, Vol. X, 1SS4-85 ; pp. 214-330. 
X Flemming, W. Neue Beitrage 2ur Kenntniss der Relle. Arch f. mikr. Anat., 
Vol. XXXIX, 1S87, p. 389. 



in its niatiiifif habits and spermatogenesis, making it available for the 
demonstration of cell-division only dnring the late spring and summer 
months. Karyokinesis may be found well into August, though not 
abundantly. The males are easily distinguished by the greater size of 
the hind legs and the broad caudal fin-fold. The portion of the testis 
containing cells is a translucent gray, while that in which the lobules are 
filled with ripe spermatozoa is an opaque white or yellow white, as Flem- 
ming pointed out in Salamandra, there being in neither form pigment to 
obscure the effect. 

Amblystoma (punctatum in the East, tigrinum in the central por- 
tions) also mates in the early spring (March or April), and presumably 
in the stages of spermatogenesis it corresponds in general to Diemycty- 
lus. Cell-multiplication is still going on in early August, however. Am- 
blystoma is not as easily obtained as Diemyctylus, secluding itself under 
logs and stones except at the breeding season, when it is valueless for 
karyokinetic purposes. 

Necturus ( the mud-pupp}- or water-dog of the vernacular ) presuma- 
bl}^ must likewise be taken in the early summer, since individuals taken 
from early fall to late winter show the testis filled with ripe spermatozoa. 
It has been difficult to obtain it here during late spring or early summer. 

In addition to these salamanders, which are available, and contrast- 
ing with them, we have as occupants of the brooks in the eastern United 
States, two other genera of salamanders, Desmognathus, the dusky sala- 
mander, and Spelerpes. I^ittle is known of the breeding habits of these 
genera, but all evidence that we have points to the fact that the breeding 
season, instead of coming in early spring, comes in late summer or even 
late in the fall, eggs having been found in October.* At all events, lob- 
ules in stages of karyokinesis are found in specimens taken in early fall 
to midwinter, and probably, in the case of Desmognathus at least, up to 
April. In both of these the testis are densely pigmented and the regions 
of cells and spermatozoa cannot be as easily distinguished as in Salaman- 
dra or Diemyctylus. Spermatogenesis, however, seems to proceed from 
the cephalic toward the caudal end, causing an enlargement of the testis 
and a diminution of the amount of pigment, and it is in the narrower 
region, or where the larger and smaller portions meet, that cell-division 
is generally found. In Desmognathus, there are sometimes (not always) 
found two, rarely three, divisions of the testis, corresponding apparently 
to two centers of spermatozoa formation. 

Testes of Diemyctylus and Amblystoma, then, are suitable for kary- 
okinesis during spring and early summer (May, June, July); Desmogna- 
thus and Spelerpes, on the other hand, may be employed during fall and 



* Sherwood, W. I,. The Salamanders found in the vicinity of New York City, 
with notes on extra-limital or allied species. Proc. T^nuaean Soc. of N. Y. , No. 7, 
1895 ; pp. 21-37. 



winter. Doubtless other j^enera belongiiif^ to the same families will like- 
wise be found equally serviceable at the same seasons. 

The fixinj^ fluids that experience has shown to be most suita])le are : 
Hermann's platino-aceto-osmic, (Formula : Platinum bichlorid ten per 
cent. aq. sol, three parts, one per cent, osmic acid sol. sixteen parts, •gla- 
cial acetic acid two parts, w-ater nineteen parts ; or, take platinum bichlo- 
ride one per cent. sol. fifteen parts, two per cent, osmic acid four parts, 
glacial acetic acid one part); Flemming's chronio-aceto-osniic mixture 
(strong formula) is the same as Hermann's, save that chromic acid is sub- 
stituted for the platinum bichloride), and also picric acid. The method 
of their use is as follows : It will be found best to cut the testis through 
the middle of the enlarged portion. Place both pieces for twenty-four 
hours in an abundance ( 15-20 cc. per testis) of either Hermann's or 
Flemming's fluid ; wash in running water six hours or over night, and 
harden in alcohols of fifty, seventy and eighty -two per cent, strengths. 
The superficial layers of cells will be found to be over-fixed and detail 
partly or entirely lost ; deeper cells will, however, be satisfactory. A 
thorough washing out of the fixer is important, that there be no subse- 
quent blackening of or precipitate in the tissue. Sometimes, neverthe- 
less, a precipitate occurs which may be removed by bleaching for a few 
minutes before staining, with a mixture of one cc. of hydrogen dioxide 
solution in ten or twenty cc. of seventy per cent, alcohol. Paraffine 
should be employed for imbedding ; the sections should be between five 
and ten // in thickness and be made longitudinally of the testis. For 
staining, most serviceable will be found Heldenhain's Iron Hematoxylin 
with or without after-staining in orange G, or safranin with or without 
light green as a counter-stain. For the iron hematoxylin (a) mordant 
for one hour in a four per cent. aq. sol. of ferric alum (iron-ammouium- 
persulphate), rinse well in water one or two minutes, (b) stain one to 
three hours or until black in a four-tenths per cent, aq. hematoxylin 
(may be conveniently made up by taking three cc. of a sixteen per cent, 
alcoholic stock solution of hematoxylin in one hundred cc. of water.) 
Any aqueous hematoxylin may be taken, however, the time of staining 
being longer for weak fornmlas. (c) Rinse in water and differentiate by 
dipping into the ferric-alum solution for a few seconds and then rinsing 
in tap water, repeating the operation until the right degree of differentia- 
tion is attained as determined by examination under the microscope. The 
chromatin should be stained a Vjlue-black or black, the spindle gray or 
light blue. Wash well in water for al)out twenty minutes and dehydrate, 
clear and mount in balsam, or, if it is preferred, stain after washing for 
a minute or so in a strong one-half saturated aqueous solution of orange G. 

One of the best safranin stains to employ is Babes' — equal parts of 
concentrated aqueous and alcoholic solutions. Stain in this three to 
twenty -four hours, wash with ninety-five per cent, alcohol, clear, and 
mount in balsam. No other differentiation than that of the ninety-five 
per cent, alcohol is needed with this fornmla. 



Picro-acetic mixture, of which there are several formulas, is possibly 
even better than the two standard fixers just mentioned. It is a saturated 
aqueous sohition of picric acid, or (possibly better) a half saturated solu- 
tion (saturated solution one part, water one part) of picric acid with onie 
or two per cent, of glacial acetic acid added. Place the testis in this for 
six to twelve hours, soak in seventy per cent, alcohol one day and in 
eighty-two per cent, alcohol several days, changing until the picric acid 
is almost entirely removed, when it may be carried on for imbedding. 
The most satisfactory stain with tissue fixed in this way is Heidenhain's 
iron hematoxylin, as above. The time of mordanting and staining may 
be much shorter than with Hermann's or Flennning's ; one-half hour in 
the ferric alum, and half an hour in the stain. Safranin is as not satisfac- 
tory with this fixer as with Flennning's or Hermann's. Any one of 
these fixers and stains gives good figures of cell-division, suitable for 
demonstration. 

The testis of the crayfish, so common in our rivers and streams, like- 
wise is a very good subject for the demonstration of karyokinesis, the 
only objections being the small size of the cells and the large number of 
chromosomes. Their division, however, is very easily demonstrated, as 
is also the centrosome. The testis will be found immediately beneath 
the heart, on the dorsal side, under the carapace, and is easily distin- 
guished as a three-lobed white organ. It may be removed from a five to 
eight cm. male in the summer or fall and fixed and stained in one of the 
ways mentioned above. The sections should not be more than five or 
seven 1.1 thick. 

The larvae of Amphibia, especially the tailed forms, are very suitable 
objects for the demonstration of cell-division. Just hatched specimens 
are most suitable, although rapidl}' growing .forms, such as Amblystoma 
should be suitable throughout the spring. While division figures may be 
found readily in all parts of the body, the epidermis and oral epithelium 
are the most favorable regions. By fixing but a short time (one to two 
minutes ) it is possible to remove large pieces of the epidermis by scrap- 
ing, and these may be washed, examined, stained if found suitable, and 
mounted without further treatment. It will be found more satisfactory, 
however, to fix the caudal portion in one-third per cent, platinum chlo- 
ride or chromo-formic (four or five drops of strong formic acid in two 
hundred cc. of a one-third per cent. aq. solution of chromic acid, added 
just before using). Leave in either of these twenty-four hours, wash in 
water four to six hours, and harden in fifty, seventy and eighty-two per 
cent, alcohols. Sections parallel to the surface should be made so as to 
cut the epidermis very obliquely and have more cells in each section. 
Amblystoma is most favorable, since the young larvae are not densely 
pigmented and grow very rapidly. Spelerpes larvae, although they may 
be found during summer and winter, are not serviceable, apparently be- 
cause of their slow jrrowth. 



The Amphibia have one disadvantage, in that the achromatic portion 
of the figure is not as strongly developed as is desirable ; the testis seems 
the least objectionable from this aspect. On the other hand, in inverte- 
brate eggs generally, and especially Ascaris and Echinoderm eggs as 
most available, the spindle and polar radiations are strongly developed. 
These forms are not as generally available as are the Amphibia. Those 
who are so located that they have access to freshly killed horses may ob- 
tain from the coecum or ileum, the parasitic worm, Ascaris megaloceph- 
ala, from which the uteris filled with developing eggs may be removed 
and fixed in either of the three following fluids : (a) Glacial acetic acid 
one part, absolute or ninety-five per cent, alcohol three parts : (b) abso- 
lute alcohol one part, glacial acetic acid one part, chloroform one part, 
and mercuric chloride to saturation ; or (c) seventy per cent, alcohol 
eight parts, glacial acetic acid two parts, which formula Professor Conk- 
lin of the University of Pennsylvania has stated to be very satisfactory. 
In fornmla (a), wash out with strong alcohol until all odor of acetic acid 
has disappeared ; in formula (b), wash thoroughly in fifty per cent, alco- 
hol until all trace of the acid has been removed, and in seventy and 
eighty-two per cent, alcohols changing until the mercuric chloride has 
been all washed out ; in formula (c) wash one day in seventy per cent, 
alcohol and store in eighty -two per cent, alcohol. 

Mammals from which demonstrations of kar)'okinesis are most to be 
desired, especially for medical students, are, nevertheless, the most un- 
satisfactor)'. The testis again, especially of rodents such as the mouse, 
rat, or guinea-pig, is perhaps most favorable. It should be cut up into 
small pieces and fixed in Flemming's or Hermann's twenty-four hours, 
washed in running water several hours, and hardened in the alcohols. 
Iron Hematoxylin or safranin will again be found the most satisfactory 
stain. The mesentery of new-born rabbits has been recommended as 
affording sasisfactory demonstrations of cell-division in the covering 
epithelium. 

Likewise the amnion of the rat has been advanced f as a good tissue 
for demonstrating indirect cell-division. White rats were employed and 
the amnion of embryos, eighteen to twenty nun., were fixed in strong 
aqueous solution of picric acid (picric-acetic will do) or Flemming's 
fluid, spread out flat on the slide, and stained with hematoxylin. The 
karyokinetic figures are represented as being numerous and large. 
Neither of these methods have been personally tested ; it is suggested 
that other new born animals, e. g., kittens and the amnion of other em- 
bryos, may be used with equally good results. 



* Orth, Joh. Cursus der uormalen Histologic zur Eiufuhruug in deu Gebrauch 
des Mikroskopes sowie in das praktische Studiuni der Gewebelehre. ste Auff. Ber- 
lin, 1888. 

t Solgcr, B. Saugethier-Mitoseu ini histologischen Kursus. Arch. f. mikr. Auat., 
Vol. XXXIII, 1889, p. 517. 



EAYMOND CLINTON KEED, Ph.B., 

histrudor in Comparative Pathology and Bacteriology. 



ARTICLES. 



Preparation of Culture Media with Special Reference to Sterilization. 
American Monthly Microscopical Journal, Vol. xviii, No. 5, 
May, 1897. Pp. 149-154. 

Dahlia as a Stain for Bacteria in Sections cut by the Collodion Method. 
Transactions of the American Mici'oscopical Society. Vol. 
xix, 1897. Pp. 182-185. 



Preparation of Culture Media with Special Reference to 
Sterilization. 

Hv ivAV.MoNi) C. Rkkd, l*h. 15. 

[Assistant ii) the Department of Comparative Pathology and Bacteriology, 

Now York State Vtteiinaiv College, Cornell University, Ithaca, N. Y.] 

The amount of culture media used by the students in 
a bacteriological laboratory is so great that its prepara- 
tion after the method given in the text books occupies 
an undue proportion of the time allotted to this subject. 
If it is prepared by an assistant and furnished to the 
students it not only takes mucli of his time, but it de- 
prives the student of the opportunity of learning one of 
the most important processes necessary for successful 
work in bacteriology. Hence any change wliich will 
shorten the time required for its preparation will be of 
value. Wlien it is prepared by the usual method rec- 
ommended in text books on Bacteriology at least three 
days are necessary to complete the process of steriliza- 
tion. The method of sterilizing by wliich the media is 
heated to a somewliat higher temperature than 100° C. 
by means of su[)erheated steam is open to the objection 
that the nutritive properties are impaired to a greater or 
less extent for certain species of bacteria. 

In 1890 Moore^ published a paper giving the method 
employed in the Bureau of Animal Industry for making 
nutritive agar and which seems to be the one recommended, 
with slight variations as to details, in the greater num- 
ber of bacteriologies. The two most important changes 
suggested were, (1) that when the agar was made from 
meat infusion instead of meat extract, it sliould be pre- 
pared from bouillon which could be made up in quanti- 
ties and kept stored in flasks as stock ready for use. This 
applies not only to the making of agar but also gelatin 

"The Preparation of Nutritive Agar. By V. A. Moore, M. D., Ameri- 
can Microscopical Journal, May, 1890. 



4 Raymond C. Reed. 

or any other medium which requires a meat infusion for 
its nutritive base. (2) Tliat tlie ai2,ar sliould be cut up in 
small pieces and dissolved in a liquid which contains no 
coagulable material before it is added to the bouillon. 
This is done by using the proportion of five grams of 
agar, finely chopped, to 100 c. c. of water and boiling in 
an agate iron dish over a direct ilame with constant stir- 
ring. I have found, however, that it is more satisfactory 
to boil the agar in a closed w^ater bath. Tliis takes not 
to exceed twenty minutes longer aad as there is no dan- 
ger of the agar burning the stirring and constant atten- 
tion required when it is dissolved over a liame is unnec- 
essary. By this method the agar is completely dissolved 
and a medium of a known consistency can always be made. 

In 1892 Scliultz,* of the Johns Hopkins Hospital, de- 
scribed a rapid method of making agar which requires 
but one hour for the whole process. For this he uses 
meat extract which gives a medium favorable for the 
growth, of son^e organisms but not for others. He also 
gives a method by which the agar may be made from 
meat infusion taking but an hour and a half. 

The following methoil of [)reparing media has proved 
very satisfactory and in my hands more so than the one 
described by Schultz although his process has many ad- 
vantages. 

The preparation of pejytonized houilloii. — To 1000 grams 
of finely chop[)ed or ground meat (beef or veal) add :2000 
c. c. of distilled water. Put in an agate iron dish and 
heat in a water bath at a temperature of from 60° to 65° 
C for two hours or allow it to macerate in a cool place 
for 24 hours. Strain through a coarse cloth and bring 
the amount of liquid up to 2000 c. c. by adding water if 
necessary. To tliis infusion add J per cent peptone and 

*A ]va|)id Method of Makin<; Ajiar-nj^ar. V>\ .John L. Scludtz. John's 
Hopkins Hospilul bulletin, No. '24, July— Ang., 1892. 



Phei'auation of CrLTiRK Media. 5 

i per cent sodium chloride and if n neutral or alkaline 
medium is desired add enough of a 1 }>er cent solution 
of caustic soda to bring about the required reaction. Boil 
in a water bath for half an hour. Cool and filter through 
ordinary filter paper and distribute in sterilized tlasks. 
The amount in each flask is to be determined by the work 
in the laboratory. I liave found 500 c. c. a convenient 
quantity. 

Preparatkm of nutrie'iit agaT.—Y)\s^o\\iib grams of 
finely cut agar in about 100 c. c. of water. This may be 
done in either of two ways, by heating over a direct flame 
for about ten minutes with constant stirring to prevent 
burning or by heating in a closed water bath until the 
whole mass becomes gelatinous. Tlie agar is tlien added 
to 500 c. c. of bouillon, thoroughly mixed with it and 
boiled in a water bath for twenty minutes. It is then 
cooled down to 45° to 50"^ C. and the whites of two eggs 
added and thoroughly mixed with the agar. It is then 
returned to the water bath and boiled for from twenty 
to thirty minutes. The albumen will then be collected 
in a firm coagulum containing any insoluble particles 
that ujay have been in the agar, leaving a perfectly clear 
liquid. It is filtered while hot through ordinary filter 
paper, the filti'ation taking place rapidly without the aid 
of a hot filtering apparatus. The filtrate is then distrib- 
uted in tubes which have been previously plugged with 
absorbent cotton and sterilized. 

Preparation of nibtrient gelatin — To 500 c. c. of bouil- 
lon add 50 grams of gelatin and heat in a w^ater bath 
until tlie gelatin is dissolved. Cool to about 45^ C. and 
and the whites of two eggs, mix thoroughly. This is 
done most rapidly and effectually by pouring the liquid 
several times from one dish to another. Then boil in 
a water bath for twenty minutes. Filter through ordin- 
ary filter paper and distribute in sterilized tubes. Care 



6 Raymond C. Reed. 

must be taken not to boil gelatin too long or it will lose 
its property of solidifying wben cold. 

i^teril{zatio7i of Media. It will be seen that the pro- 
cess of i)reparing ciiltur*^ media u}) to the point of steril- 
ization is practically the sanieas that described in recent 
text books on bacteriology. The method is short and by 
having the nutritive medium prepared and kept in stock 
the preparation up to this point of either agar or gelatin 
is very simple. The essential time consuming part of 
the process is the sterilization. Although this has now 
been reduced from tiie boiling on six consecutive days to 
three, it is still an im[)ortant element in laboratory work 
especially where students are present but two or three 
days, usually alternating, in each week. 

During tlie past two terms I have made a considerable 
number of experiments for the purpose of determining 
if it is necessary in order to secure complete sterilization 
to boil media, when distributed in small quantities in 
tubes, for three consecutive days. In these experiments 
I have found that one boiling for a slightly longer time, 
thirty minutes, seems to be all that is necessary to ster- 
ilize bouillon, nutrient agar and nutrient gelatin distrib- 
uted in either small or laro'e tubes. After distributing 
the medium the tubes were put in a closed water bath 
and boiled vigorously for thirty minutes. At the ex[)ir- 
ation of that time they were taken out and placed in an 
incubator where they were hI lowed to remain for several 
days, when it was a simple matter to sort out and reject 
any tubes that may have been contaminated. As w^ill 
be seen from the ai)pended tables, giving the results of 
these experiments, contaminations have been very rare. 
In fact they have not been much i!'any more numerous 
than they were when the three regular boilings were em- 
ployed. Although several of the agar and gelatin tubes 
were not sterilized, they were contaminated wMth a spore 



PiiKivvirvTioN OF Cn/n HE Media. 7 

bearin*:: bacillus wliicli has not infiequontly appeared in 
media boiled for ten minutes on three consecutive days. 



STJEKILIZATION OF BOUILLON WITH ONE BOILINC; 



Date. 


Number of 
tubes. 


Amount in each 
tuhe. 


Time boiled. 

Days in incuba-i 
tor after boiling.' 


11 

s 


Remarks 


Jan. 9, 1897 
Jan. 14. 1S97 
Jan. 14, 1S97 

Feb. 5, 1897 
Feb. II, i8»7 
Mar. 5, 1897 
Apr. 6. 1S97 


40 
80 
14 

32 

46 
45 


7C. c 

7 c c 

25 c. c 

7 c.c 

7 c.c 

7c c 

7C. c 


30 mill 7 

30 min 7 

30 min 7 

30 min 7 

30 min 6 

30 min 7 

30 min 5 
















Fernitrntation tubes with one 
per cent, glucose. 











STERILIZATION OF AGAR WITH ONE BOILING. 



Date. 




II 


Amount in each 
tube 


Time boiled. 


si 

^2 


SI 

'^ '5 

oi 
^ 5 

2 







Remark.s. 


Jan. 22, 18^7 

Jan. 27. 1S97 
Feb. 5-i'^'97 
Feb 13, 1897 
Mar. 16, 1897 
Mar. 27, i8q7 
Apr. 6. i8g7 


50 

48 
Si 
14 
25 
4i 
4o 


7 c.c 

7C. c 

7 c. c 

7 c.c 

7 c. c 

7C c 

7 c. c 


30 min 

30 mill 

30 mill 

30 min 

30 mill 

30 min 

30 mill 


7 

6 

7 

7 
7 


Each of the three tubes con- 
tained a spore bearino: bacil- 
lus belonging to the 1?. subl- 
ilis group. 
Same as above. 













STERILIZATION OF TUBES OF AGAR CONTAINING A LAR- 
GER QUANTITY FOR MAKING PLATE CULTURES. 



CO 



O *J 

^ 5 



Dec. 29, 1896 
Jan. 27, 1897 
Feb. 5, 1897 
Mar. 16, 1897 
Mar. 27, 1S97 

Apr. 6, 1897' 



12 c. c ■ 30 min. 

15 c. c ! 30 min. 

15 c. c ! 40 min. 

18 c. c 30 mill. 

18 c. c 30 min. 



Left at room temp, for 10 days 



Spore bearing bacillus be- 
longing to the B. subtilis 
group. 



Raymond C. Reed. 



STERILIZATION OF GELATIN WITH ONE BOILING. 



Date. 




II 

c 3 
3 ^ 


Amount in each 
tube. 


Time boiled. 


Days in incuba- 
tor after boiling 

No. of tubes 
contaminated. 


Remarks. 


Dec. 29, 1896 
Feb. 19, 1897 
Mar. 18, 1S97 
Do 


30 
30 

IS 

25 

10 

36 

35 


12 c. c 

I.S c. c 

iSc.c .... 
7 c c 

.Sec... 

7C.C 

7C c... 


30 min 

30 min 

30 min 

30 min . . 

30 min 

30 min 

30 min 



7 

7 
7 I 

7 ' 
7 
7 


Left at room temp for 1.4 days 




Contained a spore bearing 
bacillus belonging to the B. 
stibtilis group. 


Mar. 23. 1897 
Do 




Mar. 25, 1S97 







If spore bearing bacilli are present in large numbers 
more difficulties might be experienced. But ordinarily 
if the medium is prepared with proper care and distrib- 
uted as soon as filtered, in sterile tubes and l)oiled at once 
very few contaminations are likely to occur. 

The time that must elaspe before the medium can be 
safely used is not so much shoi'ter than when the custom- 
ary method is employed but the time actually spent in 
sterilizing is much shorter. In a crowded laboratory this 
is important. It probably is not necessary to leave the 
media in the incubator from five to seven days as I have 
indicated in the above tables for in every case of con- 
tamination the growth took place within the first twenty 
four hours. 

I am not prepared to say that this method is the best 
or that it is safe for all kinds of work, f)ut it has proved 
to be well adapted to the needs in a student laboratory 
and to save much valuable time for both the student and 
the teacher. 



Reprinted from the Transactions of the Atnerican Microscopical Society, fSgy. 



DAHLIA AS A STAIN FOR BACTERIA IN SECTIONS 
CUT BY THE COLLODION METHOD, 



RAYMOND C. REED, Ph. B., Ithaca, N. Y. 



Many elaborate methods of staining- bacteria in tissues have 
been devised, but with nearly all of them difficulties have been 
encountered. Probably the greatest trouble has been in the 
staining of the imbedding medium or the albumen fixative 
which usually obscure both the tissue elements and the bacte- 
ria. Unless, therefore, the sections are cut in parafifin and 
not fastened to the slide by these common fixatives the bac- 
teria are not satisfactorily brought out. Here again arises 
another obstacle. With loose or fragile tissues there is great 
danger of tearing the sections or of losing parts of them dur- 
ing the process of staining and dehydrating, thus destroy- 
ing the value of the preparation. 

Although parafifin is commonly used in pathological his- 
tology, collodion is more often employed in imbedding normal 
tissues. The rule in normal histology is to fasten the sec- 
tions to the slide. In pathological histology they are not, 
for the reasons mentioned, ordinarily fastened, but in many 
cases it seems better to do so. The need of having an abso- 
lutely perfect section from a pathological tissue, especially 
for diagnosis, is even greater than is the case when sections 
of normal tissues are being made. The loss of a very small 
bit from the section may cause an entirely erroneous inter- 
pretation. By the use of collodion as the imbedding medium 
this danger is practically entirely eliminated, while the 
method is much simpler and easier than that in which parafifin 
is used and the sections are fastened to the slide by the use 
of collodion or an albumen fixative. 



2 RAYMOND C. REED : 

It is a well known fact that collodion takes most of the 
aniline dyes and will not give up the stain without being 
treated with a decolorising agent sufificiently strong to 
decolorise the tissue at the same time. In the case of paraffin 
sections which have been fastened to the slide with collodion 
or albumen fixative, or both, besides the disadvantage of using 
a process which takes a longer time, we meet the same diffi- 
culty that we did in the collodion method, in that the fixative 
takes the stain and obscures the preparation quite as much as 
does the imbedding collodion. 

Both the collodion and the paraffin methods have their 
advantages for special kinds of work. Ordinarily in patho- 
logical histology I much prefer, for the reasons mentioned, 
collodion to paraffin as an imbedding medium. The method 
I have used is that described by Prof. S. H. Gage* in a paper 
read before this society in 1895. ^^ it he summarised the 
whole process of sectioning by the oil-collodion method and 
suggested two very important improvements in the way of 
simplifying and cheapening the process. This method 
includes the improvements suggested by Dr. P. A. Fish in 
1893. Dr. Fish fastened the sections to the slide by putting 
a few drops of ether and alcohol on the section after it was in 
position. Prof. Gage used a mixture of three parts of xylene 
and one part of castor oil as a clarifier. In passing a section 
from water to strong alcohol, or vice versa, he avoids the 
diffusion currents by plunging the slide directly into the 
desired liquid instead of carrying it through successively 
higher or lower percentages of alcohol, as the case might be. 
This method, as perfected by Dr. Fish and Prof. Gage, is 
very simple and apparently the best one yet devised. 

After finding the best method of cutting the sections the 
problem then seems to resolve itself into the selecting of a 
suitable dye that will stain the bacteria properly and yet one 



* S. H. Gage, Improvements in Oil-Sectioning with Collodion. Proceedings American 
Microscopical Society, Vol. XVII., 1895, PP- 361-370. 

t P. A. Fish, A new Clearer for Collodionised Objects. Proceedings American Micro- 
scopical Society, Vol. XV., 1893, pp. 68-89 



DAHLIA AS A STAIN FOR BACTERIA. 3 

that will wash out of the imbedding material without the use 
of a decolorising agent so strong that it will remove the stain 
from the tissue and the bacteria. 

During the past year we have had a large amount of patho- 
logical material to section and for the most part for diag- 
nosis. At first I cut most of this in paraffin, as Dr. Moore 
preferred it to collodion on account of the staining of the 
collodion. In the winter term I had some sections that I 
wanted to stain with gentian violet, but finding that we were 
out of it, I substituted dahlia in its place. These sections 
had been cut by the paraffin method and it was found that 
the stain not only showed the bacteria well but also brought 
out beautifully the histological structure of the tissue. Later 
I had occasion to cut some sections from some material 
which had been imbedded in collodion and to stain them for 
bacteria. After using other stains, such as carbol fuchsin and 
methyl violet, with unsatisfactory results, I tried an aqueous 
solution of the dahlia and found that it worked perfectly. In 
the process of washing and dehydrating this was entirely 
removed from the collodion, leaving both the tissues and the 
bacteria well stained and sharply differentiated. 

Other formulae, using dahlia as the dye, were tried, such 
as a solution containing less of the elements of a mordant 
nature, using 2 per cent, carbolic acid instead of 5 per 
cent., and also Koch-Ehrlich's aniline water solution. The 
carbolic acid solution did fairly well, but the aniline water 
solution stained the collodion too deeply and permanently. 
Neither brought out the cellular elements with anything like 
the clearness that the simple aqueous solution did. 

The formula for the stain used is as follows : 

Saturated alcoholic solution of dahlia 20 c.c. 

Distilled water 100 c.c. 

The length of time necessary to stain properly varies, 
according to the condition of the tissue, from, fifteen minutes 
to half an hour, that is, they must be distinctly overstained. 



4 DAHLIA AS A STAIN FOR I'.ACTERIA. 

Then wash thoroughly with 95 per cent, alcohol until the 
collodion around the section appears colorless, and clear with 
a clearing fluid, preferably clove oil. The tissue will be well 
defined and the bacteria will stand out deeply stained against 
the more lightly stained cells of the tissue. 

Of course, this method will not do with certain bacteria that 
require special stains or treatment, but it does work most 
admirably with the majority of microorganisms found in 
diseased animal tissues. 



RAY JONES STANCLIFT, B.V.M, 

Devwnstraior of A7iatomv. 



ARTICLE. 



Aseptic Castration of Male Animals. 

American Veterinary Review, Vol. xxii, July, 1898. Pp. 249-272. 



[Reprinted from the Amkritan Vi-.tefinakv Reaif.w, July, 1898.] 



ASEPTIC CASTRATION OF MALE ANIMALS. 

Graduation Thesls by R. J. Stanclift, Student, New York 
State Veterinary College. 



History. — The operation of castration is one that has been 
performed upon all domesticated animals and upon man for 
ten centuries b. c. (i.) The castration of man being first 
spoken of in the Bible in Isaiah, 56, 3 ; and ancient writers 
claim that the operation was in vogue before the time of 
Semiramis. (2.) Andramyties, the King of Lydia, is said to 
have sanctioned castration in both males and females of the 
human race for social reasons. 

It is still practiced upon man in the Eastern countries that 
are of Mohammedan belief ; also in China, and in some parts of 
India at the present time. 

The castration of the female domesticated animals was 
known to the Danes in the sixteenth century, and they operated 
successfully upon sheep, swine, cows, and even mares. The 
bitch is spoken of as being operated upon about the first of the 
present century. 

These operations are performed upon cattle and swine very 
extensively in the Western and Southern States, and upon the 
bitch throughout the whole country at the present time. 

The emasculation of the male domestic animals is of double 
importance in the animal industry, as it renders the animal 
more gentle and docile and more obedient to his master's will, 
as in the gelding. It also increases the production of meat both 
in quantity and quality in animals, which are kept for that 
purpose, as we see in the emasculated bull, the steer, or in the 
case of the emasculated boar, the barrow. This is perhaps more 
forcibly ilhistrated in the emasculation of the cock, which 
increases his weight and produces flesh of a much superior 
quality. The operation has been found to give best results 



R. J. STANCLIFT 



in the meat-producing animals when performed at an early age. 

Anatomy. — Before taking up the operation itself, it would 
be well to glance briefly at the anatomy of the seat of the 
operation. 

In the normal animal, we have the testicles situated in the 
scrotum, between the thighs, in the horse and ruminants, while 
in the pig, they are situated more posteriorly and just below the 
perineum. 

The scrotum is composed from without inwards of, first, the 
common integument, which is reflected from the thighs over the 
scrotum. This is thin and soft. It is covered with soft, downy 
hairs, and has a great number of sebaceous glands, the secretion 
from which keeps it soft and flexible. It is marked mesialy by 
a longitudinal raphe, which indicates a division into two por- 
tions, a right and left. Beneath the common integument, we 
have the dartos, a thin layer of muscular and elastic tissue, 
which is derived from the abdominal tunic and is continuous 
-with it. This may be said to be the proper scrotal tunic, as 
besides covering the testicle, it sends a fold up between the 
testicles, called the septum scroti, corresponding to the outer 
longitudinal raphe. Beneath the dartos is the spermatic fascia, 
-which is derived from the external oblique muscle. This is 
attached around the external abdominal ring and passes down 
over the cord and testicle. Inside this, is the cremasteric fascia, 
which is an expansion of the cremaster muscle. This arises 
from the iliac fascia and passes down the inguinal canal and 
.spermatic cord to surround the testicle. This fascia forms only 
.an incomplete covering, while still deeper is the infundibuli- 
f orm fascia, which is an extension from the transversalis abdo- 
minalis muscle fascia. This is funnel-shaped and commences 
at the internal ring, passing dowm over the cord and testicle, and 
on the inside is continuous with the outer serous covering of 
the testicle. 

Then we have the two peritoneal coverings, which are 
brought down by the testicle when it passes from the abdominal 
ocavity to the scrotum. The outer one is spoken of as the 



ASEPTIC CASTRATION OF MALE ANIMALS. 3 

tunica vaginalis reflexa, and is united by cellular tissue to the 
infundibuliform fascia, on its outer surface. 

The inner serous tunic, known as the tunica vaginalis pro- 
pria, is attached on its inner side to the outer fibrous coat of the 
testicle ; and the surface of these peritoneal coverings, which 
are in contact with each other, are lined with a single layer of 
squamous epithelium (endothelium) and thus forms a large 
lymph space, which is continuous with the peritoneal cavity, 
being, in fact, a portion of it, which was carried down with the 
testicle when it passed into the scrotum. 

The testicle is the essential reproductive gland of the male. 
It is composed of an outer fibrous covering, from which trabe- 
culce extend inw^ards, dividing the gland up into pyramidal 
shaped spaces that contain the active secreting gland substance. 
It is surmounted on the superior border by the epididymis, 
which is the first portion of the excretory canal and which ter- 
minates in the vas deferens. 

The testicle is suspended in the scrotum by the spermatic 
cord, which is composed of the vas deferens, posteriorly, and on 
the anterior border we- have the great testicular or spermatic 
artery, which is very tortuous ; and between these, we have a 
band of gray muscular fibres, and also the small testicular 
artery. These are all bound together by loose cellular tissue, 
which also contains nerves, lymphatics and the accompanying 
veins of the arteries. The spermatic cord extends from the 
testicle up to the external abdominal ring ; inferior to this, it 
has the covering of the scrotum. It enters the inguinal canal 
and passes into the abdominal cavity, through the internal ab- 
dominal ring ; here we will leave it, as for our purpose it is not 
necessary to trace it any further. 

METHODS OF OPERATING WHICH ARE IN VOGUE AT THE PRES- 
ENT TIME. 

The operation consists in the removal of the essential organs 
of generation, the testicles, or by bringing about a cessation of 
their functions. The methods used at the present time to bring 
this about can be divided into three classes. 



R. J. STANCLIFT. 



The first class would include those operations, by which the 
envelopes of the testicle are cut through and the organ removed 
by section of the spermatic cord. This would include simple 
section of the cord with a sharp knife, which is claimed to be 
one of the oldest methods, and is still used upon some of the 
smaller animals. With larger animals, there is danger of pro- 
fuse hcemorrhage. 

Scraping is but a modification of the preceding operation, 
and consists in using a dull instrument to scrape the cord 
slowly through. This, by lacerating the walls of the artery 
hastens clot formation but is sometimes followed by severe 
haemorrhage. 

Torsion of the cord : — This is brought about after the envel- 
opes have been cut through by grasping the cord at the point 
where it emerges from the incision, with forceps or the hand, 
and fixing it firmly ; then wdth forceps or the hand grasping 
the cord just above the testicle, and by twisting to rupture the 
cord between these two points. This, by twisting and lacerating 
the fibrous coat of the arteries, occludes them and checks the 
haemorrhage. 

Crushing of the cord : — This is very common at the present 
day, and is accomplished by the use of the ecraseur, or by the 
emasculator, an instrument which has attained great popularity 
in the last decade ; and, last, section of the cord by actual cau- 
tery. This is accomplished by applying a broad wooden clamp 
upon the cord up as close as possible to the scrotum and then 
applying a dull red hot cautery to the cord and severing it with 
this. The stump of the cord is cauterized until it is carbon- 
ized, and as soon as this is accomplished is released from the 
clamp. 

The second class is but a modification of the first. Here the 
envelopes are incised the same as in the first, only there are ap- 
plied certain means of pressure to the cord which are allowed to 
remain on. These are applied before amputation of the tes- 
ticle, and consists of two methods — the application of clamps or 
of a ligature. The method of applying clamps is a very ancient 



ASEPTIC CASTRATION OF MALE ANIMALS. 



mode of operating. It is performed in two ways — the covered 
and the uncovered. 

In the uncovered operation, the envelopes of the testicle are 
incised and the testicle removed from the envelopes. The 
clamps are applied to the cord above the epididymis and se- 
cured ; then, the testicle and the remainder of the cord below 
the clamp amputated with a sharp scalpel. The clamps are 
usually made of wood and are two semicylindrical pieces joined 
together with strong cord. The surfaces that come in apposi- 
tion usually have a longitudinal groove, which helps to prevent 
slipping, and by some operators this is filled with caustic paste. 
The clamps are usually allowed to remain on from thirty-six to 
sixty hours. 

The covered operation. — In this, the envelopes are incised 
down to the cremasteric fascia. This is carefully dissected 
away from the outer envelopes and then the clamps are applied 
over the remaining unopened envelopes and the cord and 
secured here ; then the testicle and surrounding envelopes are 
excised. 

By ligation. — This is done by applying a ligature over the 
cord, after exposing the testicle by ligating the spermatic 
artery or by ligating over the inner envelopes after separating 
them from the outer, the same as for the covered operation, 
with the clamps. 

In all these cases, the amputation is below the ligature. 

In ruminants, which have a long pendulous scrotum, 
some operators have ligated the entire scrotum and allowed 
it to slough off. In these cases, an elastic ligature is prefer- 
able. 

The third class would include those modes of operating 
where the scrotum is not incised, or a portion of it destroyed by 
the operation. These consist in either crushing the spermatic 
cord or operating by double subcutaneous torsion. 

Crushing the cord is only practicable in the pendulous 
scrotum of the ruminant. The cord enclosed in the scrotum is 
placed between tw^o straight sticks, which have squared edges. 



R. J. STANCLIFT. 



and these are struck until the cord is crushed sufficiently to 
cause atrophy of the testicle to follow. 

The double subcutaneous torsion of the testicle is produced 
by so manipulating the testicle in the scrotum as to produce a 
twisting of the spermatic cord and thus cause an interference 
with the blood supply of the testicle and atrophy from innutri- 
tion. This operation is also only applicable in ruminants, on 
account of its requiring a pendulous scrotum. Both are used in 
southern France, but are not in general use, as they are not 
always certain in producing the desired effect, besides having 
the disadvantage of the persistent atrophied testicle in the 
scrotum, which might be objectionable. For these reasons, the 
third class will not be considered any further. 

The first two classes leave the scrotum open after the removal 
of the testicle. We find our veterinary writers mentioning 
swelling, (3) secondary hemorrhage and suppuration (i) as the 
normal results of these methods of castration ; also of perito- 
nitis, abscess of scrotum, tetanus, champignon or schirrous cord, 
gangrene of the scrotr.m and glanders (4) as the abnormal 
sequelcE. All of these results, except the swelling, which may 
be an oedematous condition of the scrotum without infection, 
and the secondary haemorrhage may be traced directly to bac- 
terial infection ; for tetanus has been proved to be due to a 
specific micro-organism, the bacillus tetani, as also has glanders 
to the B. mallei. Champignon or schirrous cord, or fistula of 
the scrotum, has been found to be due to infection with 
botryomyces (5), though it has not been proven that all 
of these cases are due to infection wdth this specific micro- 
organism. 

The other sequelae may be produced by a number of the 
pathogenic bacteria, which are pus producers, or are capable of 
producing septicaemia ; bacterial infection is the danger to be 
feared in the operation and it is only to this that the bad results 
and fatalities can be traced. If we can carry on the operation 
without this infection, we have removed this danger, be it much 
or little. 



ASEPTIC CASTPATION OF MALE ANIMALS. 



The question arises, how can we prevent this infection ? 
The majority of the veterinarians of the present clay try to per- 
form the operation under more or less complete antiseptic pre- 
cautions, but after the operation is completed, even provided 
there has been no infection during this time, the wound is left 
open, and in all the methods, except the covered operation, 
there is a direct opening into the peritoneal cavity. Even in 
the covered operation, there is left the open scrotal wound. 

These wounds always become infected to a greater or lesser 
degree, but those w^here there is an opening into the peritoneal 
cavity are the more dangerous. If, as in the majority of cases, 
the infection is slight, we have a correspondingh^ slight dis- 
charge of whitish creamy inoffensive pus, which some writers 
have called laudable pus, but which wnth our present knowledge 
of bacteriology cannot be recognized as such, for, clinically, we 
do not get pus formation without infection, and certainly infec- 
tion is not laudable. 

In these cases, there is usually healing by the granulation 
process, while if we get a virulent infection, we have what has 
been called the abnormal results of castration, as peritonitis, 
abscess of the scrotum, gangrene ; or, if the infection is due to 
specific micro-organisms, tetanus, glanders or champignon, and 
the correspondingly bad results. 

With the necessary environment of our domesticated ani- 
mals, it is impossible by these methods of procedure to have 
practical antisepsis, which is necessary to have healing by pri- 
mary adhesion. By obtaining healing by primary intention we 
do away with those sequelae which are due to infection and 
thus lessen the danger of the operation. 

In considering how we are to prevent infection, we must first 
determine how and where the infection can come from. This 
can all be summed up in three ways : 

First, the infecting material may be upon the seat of the 
operation. 

Second, it may be brought to the wound by the operator or 
his assistants. 



R. J. STANCLIFT 



Third, it may gain entrance after the operation has been 
performed. 

These can be best considered in the order as given. 

First, to prevent infection from seat of operation. Here, 
upon the skin, we have a great variety of micro-organisms, and 
these may consist of those which live upon the epidermis, and 
those obtained from the litter or earth. The latter are the more 
dangerous, as in these we may have the bacillus tetani or the 
bacillus of malignant cedema. 

The seat of the operation should be cleaned thoroughly with 
soap and water and then disinfected afterwards with some good 
antiseptic, which can be washed o£E with distilled or boiled 
water, at the time of the operation. 

Second, infection by operator or assistant. Here the infect- 
ing agents may be brought by the instruments used or by the 
hands or clothes of the operator. To prevent this, the opera- 
tor's hands and clothes should be perfectly clean and the hands 
disinfected, the instruments sterilized, preferably by boiling or 
by a good antiseptic, and nothing allowed to touch the wound 
but what has been disinfected. 

Third, the infection of the wound after the operation. In 
our domestic animals, we cannot apply any bandages or dress- 
ings to the scrotum, which can be kept in place, and thus obtain 
healing by primary adhesion, and if the wound is left open it is 
certain to become infected, so the only recourse is to close the 
wound by sutures and apply antiseptics to the parts until heal- 
ing occurs. 

The Aseptic Opei^atioii. — With a view of obtaining these re- 
sults, a series of operations were carried out under antiseptic 
precautions at the clinic of this college. The general method 
of proceeding was as follows : 

The animal was kept in the general ward one day in order 
to prepare it for the operation, and was fed a restricted laxative 
diet. The body of the animal was thoroughly cleansed and the 
sheath and scrotum well washed with soap and water. 

At the time of operating, the patient was taken to the oper- 



ASEPTIC CASTRATION OF MALE ANIMALS. 9 

ating room, placed upon the operating table and chloroform 
administered. While this was being done, the scrotum and 
sheath ^vere washed thoroughly with soap and water, after which 
the parts were wet well with sublimate solution, i-iooo; also 
the inner surfaces of the legs were moistened with this solution. 
As soon as the patient was ancesthetized the upper hind leg was 
drawn upward and forward out of the operator's way. 

The instruments to be used w^ere sterilized by being boiled 
for ten minutes in water, to which was added sufficient sodium 
bicarbonate to prevent oxidization of the instruments. The 
operator's hands were thoroughly cleansed with soap and 
water, great care being taken to clean the finger-nails, after- 
wards washing the hands in sublimate solution, i-iooo. The 
sublimate soliltion was then washed off the scrotum with 
boiled water ; the upper testicle grasped by the operator's hand 
and an incision made through the scrotum at its most dependent 
part, parallel to the longitudinal raphe and from one to two 
inches on either side of it. This incision was just large enough 
to allow the testicle to slip out endwise. 

The testicle was grasped by the hand and gently drawn well 
out. In cases I, II and III this was held by an assistant ; but in 
the others, was fixed with a clamp. 

A half-curved needle, threaded with sterilized catgut, was 
passed through the middle of the cord, where it emerged from 
the incision, or where it was held by the clamp as close to the 
instrument as possible. The anterior part of the cord was 
ligated, and without cutting the ligature, the whole of the cord 
was included in it ; the cord severed below with the emascula- 
tor ; the proximal end released from the clamp and any blood 
present washed off with boiled water, and the wound closed with 
sterilized catgut. 

The operation was repeated on the other side, after which 
the scrotum was washed with sublimate solution, the released 
leg again secured to the table and the patient allowed to recover 
from the anaesthetic, when he was returned to the general ward, 
where he was fed light for the first few days. Any deviation 



10 K. J. STANCLIFT 



from this plan will be mentioned under the report of such 
cases. 

Report of Animals Operated Upon. — No. I (546) was a black 
stallion, thirteen years old, weight about 1200 pounds, in good 
condition. Sept. 26, 1897, admitted to general ward and pre- 
pared for operation ; Sept. 27th, 2 p. m., patient placed upon 
operating table and operated upon under strict aseptic pre- 
cautions ; closed wound with interrupted sutures ; dressed with 
iodoform. Sept. 28th, 8 A. m., temp. 100.2 ; 4 p. m., temp. 100. i ; 
very slight amount of serum exuding from wound. Sept. 29th, 
temp. 2 P. M., 100.2 ; 4 p. m., 100.2. There were a few drops of 
serum exuding from the wound. Sept. 30th, 9 A. m., temp. 
100 ; 4 p. M., temp. 100.4 \ ^^^ discharge of serum from wound. 
Oct. I, 9 A. M., temp. 100.2 ; no discharge from wound. While 
animal was under observation, the scrotum was washed once 
daily, with sublimate solution, i-iooo. The owner removed 
animal Oct. ist and reported later that the wounds healed with- 
out any suppuration. 

No. II. (516) was a bay stallion, three years old ; weight 
about 1000 pounds, in medium condition. Sept. 30, 1897, ad- 
mitted to ward and prepared for operation. Oct. i, 2 p. m., 
placed animal upon operating table and operated under strict 
aseptic precautions, closed wound with interrupted sutures ; 
dressed with iodoform. Oct. 2d, 9 a. m., temp. 10 1.2 ; pulse 36, 
resp. 12 ; 2 p. m., temp. 10 1.2 ; pulse 36, resp. 12 ; animal eat- 
ing half ration ; very slight exudation of serum from wound. 
Oct. 3d, 9 A. M., temp. loi.i, pulse 38, resp. 12 ; 6. p. m., temp, 
loi. ; pulse 36, resp. 12 ; animal eating well ; looking well ; no 
exudation of serum from scrotum. Oct. 4th, 9 A. IM., temp, 
loi, pulse 2il^ resp. 12 ; animal looks well ; scrotum still some- 
what enlarged. While under observation the scrotum was 
washed once daily with sublimate solution, i-iooo. 

The owner removed animal Oct. 4th, and reported later that 
the wound healed without any suppuration. 

No. III. (738) was a large well developed Berkshire boar, 
five years old, in good condition, weight about five hundred 



ASEPTIC CASTRATION OF MALE ANIMALS. 11 



pounds. Feb. 2, 1898, admitted to ward 2 P. M., was thrown 

and confined with ropes ; the scrotum, scrubbed with soap and 
water, then rinsed off with sublimate sohition, i-iooo, and this 
washed off with boiled water, then proceeded with the opera- 
tion. The testicles were removed through small incisions in 
the lower portion of the scrotum ; the cord was ligated and 
severed below ligature with the emasculator. The wound was 
closed with a continuous suture of silk and the scrotum wet with 
sublimate solution. Feb. 3d, the animal, stiff from struggling 
when tied, but bright, eating half ration. Scrotum about as 
large as before operating ; no discharge of serum. Feb. 4th, 
scrotum about the same ; no serum from wounds ; appetite bet- 
ter. Feb. 5th, scrotum slightly decreased in size ; no discharge 
of serum from wounds. Feb. 6th, animal very lively : scrotum 
slightly smaller. Feb. 7th, animal eats all he can get ; scrotum 
about two-thirds as large as before operating. Feb. 8th, scrotum 
about one-half size as it was before operating, and the ep- 
ithelium appears to have joined over the wounds. Feb. 9th, 
scrotum about one-third original size, and as wound seemed 
to be entirely covered with epithelium, the patient was dis- 
charged. 

The owner reported later that the animal recovered without 
incident. 

No. IV. (855) was a dark bay stallion, five years old, weight 
about 1050 pounds, in medium condition ; Mar. 24, 1898, au- 
mitted to ward and prepared for operation. Mar. 25, 11 A. m., 
placed animal upon operating table and operated under strict 
aseptic precautions, closed wounds in scrotum with continuous 
suture of catgut. There was some subcutaneous haemorrhage, 
which produced a hematom on the right side. This was about 
the size of the testicle. 4 p. M., temp. 100 ; pulse 40 ; resp. 
13. Mar. 26th, 8 a. m., temp. loi.i ; pulse 43 ; resp. 12. 8 
p. M., temp. loi.i ; pulse 38; resp. 14; animal bright; scro- 
tum about the same size ; nothing exuding from the woimd. 
Mar. 27th, 9 A. M. temp. 100.8; pulse 36; resp. 12 ; no exuda- 
tion from wounds. Mar. 28th, 9 A. M., temp. 101.6 ; pulse 36 ; 



12 R. J. STANCLIFT. 



resp. 12; 3 P. M., temp. 101.9; pulse 36 ; resp. 12; scrotum 
about the same. Mar. 29th, 8 a. m., temp. 100.6; pulse 40 ; 
resp. 12 ; 3 P. m., teuip. 102. i ; pulse 38 ; resp. 12 ; the serotum 
has decreased in size somewhat, but the sheath has become 
(jcdematous. Mar. 30th, 8 A. m., temp. 100.2; pulse 36; resp. 
12 ; animal is in good spirits, but during the night l)roke the 
sutures on the right side (this being the side that the hematom 
was on) ; the wound was now opened, the clot removed, and the 
parts irrigated with sublimate solution, i-iooo. A portion of 
the clot was taken and agar and bouillon tubes inoculated with 
it. 3 p. M., temp. 100.2 ; pulse 36; resp. 12. Mar. 31st, 8 A. 
M., temp. 103; pulse 46; resp. 15; 3 p. m., temp. 101.8 ; pulse 
38 ; resp. 12 ; scrotum about the same size ; no pus on the right 
side. Apr. ist, 8 a. m., temp., 101.8 ; pulse 40; resp. 12; 3 
p. M., temp. 103 ; pulse 50 ; resp. 14 ; opened and washed out 
left side, but there was no infection seemingly. The swelling 
has gone down greatly. Apr. 2d, 8 a. m., temp. 105 ; pulse, 48 ; 
resp. 14. Animal dull, did not eat entire breakfast. 3 p. m., 
temp. 106; pulse 68; resp. 16; washed out both wounds in 
scrotum, with sublimate solution, also gave ball composed of 
Barbadoes aloe:, drachms vi ; sulph. quinine, ounce i. Apr. 3d, 
8 A. M., temp. 103.8 ; pulse 64 ; resp. 14. 3 p. m., temp. 104.2 ; 
pulse 55 ; resp. 14 ; animal eating well ; no pus from wound. 
Apr. 4th, 8 A. M., temp. 104.5 5 P^^lse 42 ; resp. 14; very slight 
swelling of scrotum ; no pus. Apr. 5th, 8 A. .m., temp. loi ; 
pulse 46; resp. 12; 3 p. m., temp. 102 ; pulse 42; resp. 12; 
no pus. Apr. 6th, 8. A. m., temp. 102.4 5 pulse 42 : resp. 12 ; 
3. p. M., teinp. 102.6; pulse 42; resp. 12. Apr. 7th, 8 A. M., 
temp. 100.4; I'esp. 12 ; pulse t,S ] 3 p. m., temp. 100.2; pulse 
36; resp. 12 ; the scrotum normal in size; the left wound has 
closed entirely, the right nearly closed. Apr. 8th, 8 A. M., temp. 
99.8; pulse 36; resp. 12; 2 p. m., temp. 100; pulse 36; resp. 
12 ; no discharge from wound. The owner took animal home 
and reported ten days later that the wound healed without any 
perceptible pus formation. The cultures that were made from 
the hematom on Mar. 30th, developed a pure culture of the 



ASEPTIC CASTRATION OF MALE ANIMALS. 13 



staphylococcus pyogenes aureus. Each day the animal was un- 
der observation, the scrotum was washed twice daily with sub- 
limate solution i-iooo. 

No. V. (879) was a dark bay stallion, six years old, weight 
about 1000 pounds, in good condition. Apr. i, 1898, admitted 
to ward and prepared for operation. Apr. 2d, 9 A. m., animal 
placed upon table and operated upon under strict antiseptic pre- 
caution ; closed wounds with interrupted sutures. Apr. 3d, 9 A. 
M., temp. loi ; resp. 14; pulse 38; 5 p. m., temp. 101.2 ; resp. 
14 ; pulse 40 ; animal bright, eating well ; scrotum about size 
as before operating. Apr. 4th, 8. A. M., temp. 101.2 ; pulse 40; 
resp. 14 ; 3 p. m., temp. 101.3 ; pulse 40; resp. 14; scrotum 
same; no exudation of serum. Apr. 5th, 8 A. M., temp. 100.4; 
pulse 36 ; resp. 12 ; 3 p. m., temp. loi ; pulse 38 ; resp. 12. Apr. 
6th, 8 A. M., temp. loi ; pulse 44 ; resp. 14 ; 3 P. m., temp. 
101.2 ; pulse 42; resp. 12 ; scrotum about the same; no exu- 
dation of serum. Apr. 7th, 8 a. m., temp. loi ; pulse 40 ; resp. 
12 ; 3 P. M., temp. 100.8 ; pulse 2)1 \ i*esp. 12. Apr. 8th, 8 a. m. 
temp. 100.6 ; pulse 38 ; resp. 12 ; 3 p. m., temp. loi ; pulse 38 ; 
resp. 12 ; scrotum considerably smaller; no exudation from 
wound. Apr. 9th, 8 A. m., temp. 100; pulse 36; resp. 12 ; 3 
p. m., temp. 100.8; pulse 38 ; resp. 12 ; scrotum about one-half 
original size. The epithelium has united over the wounds, so 
that the patient was discharged at this time. 

No. VI. (1027) was a bay yearling colt of medium size, in 
fair condition. May 3, 1898, admitted to ward and prepared 
for operation. May 4th, 11 A. M., placed animal upon operat- 
ing table and operated under usual precautions. The cord was 
ligated with sterile silk and the scrotal wounds closed with in- 
terrupted sutures of sterile silk, and over this wound gelatin 
applied (8). May 5th, 9 A. m., temp. 101.6 ; 3 p. m., temp. 101.5 ; 
very slight swelling of scrotum. May 6th, 3 P. m., temp. 101.3. 
May 7th, 3 p. M., temp. 102.2. May 8th, 9 A. m., temp. 101.6. 
May 9th, 9 A. M., temp. 102.7. ^^^Y loth, 3 p. m., temp. loi. 
May nth, animal discharged. During time since operation, 
the animal was bright and ate well. To-day the wounds appear 



14 ^. J. S'l'AN'CLIFT. 



to be covered with epithelium. There was no exudation of 
serum at any time. 

No. VII. (1029) ^^'^^ ^ yearling colt of medium size in fair 
condition. May 4, 1898, admitted to ward and prepared. ]\Iay 
5tb, placed animal upon operating table and operated under 
aseptic precautions ; the cord was ligated with silk, and the 
scrotal wounds were closed wath a continuous suture of sterile 
silk, over which was applied wound gelatin. May 6th, temp. 
100.6 ; scrotmn was not swollen at all ; the patient was feeling 
well. May 7th, 8 A. M., temp. 101.8 ; 3 P. M., temp. 102 ; very 
slight swelling of scrotum. May 8, 8 A. m., temp. 102 ; 3 p. m. 
loi. May 9th, 8 A. M., temp. 101.6 ; 3 p. M., 101.8. May loth, 
8 A. M., temp. 101.5 ; 3 p. M., temp. 100. May nth, tempera- 
ture was not taken. May 12th, 2 P. M., temp. 101.2 ; animal 
discharged. During the time since operating the patient had 
been in good spirits and eating well, and there had been no 
discharge of serum from wounds. When discharged the epi- 
thelium was united over the wounds. 

No. VIII. (1025) was a brown four-year-old colt, in medium 
condition ; weight about 950 lbs. May 2, 1898, admitted to ward 
and prepared for operation. May 3d taken to operating room and 
operated upon under septic precautions. The covered operation 
was performed and was ligated with silk ; scrotal wounds closed 
with continuous suture of silk. May 4th, 4 p. M., temp. loi ; 
scrotum swollen somewhat. May 5th, 9 A. m., temp. 101.7 ; 3 p. 
M., T02.2. May 6th, 9 A. m., temp. 100.7 5 3 P- ^^-^ temp. 101.7 ; 
swelling of scrotum much increased. May 7th, 9 a. m., temp, 
loi ; 3 p. M., temp. 101.9 ; scrotum about the same. May 8th, 
temperature not taken. May 9th, 9 A. M., temp. 105.5 5 3 ^- ^^"> 
102.8 ; scrotum very badly swollen and suppurating somewhat. 
Opened up wounds and found a large hematom on each side, 
which was doubtless due to the spermatic artery slipping up- 
ward out of the ligature and bleeding quite extensively. Re- 
moved hematom and washed out scrotal cavities with sublimate 
solution. May loth, 9 A. m., temp; 101.6 ; 3 p. m., temp. 103.4 ; 
swelling markedly decreased ; slight discharge. May nth, 3 p. 



ASErnC CASTKAllON Ol" MALE ANIMALS. 15 



M., temp. 103 ; swelling still decreasing. May I2tli, 9 A. m., 
temp. 101.3 ; 3 P. M., temp. loi. May 13th, 9 A. m., temp. 
100.6 ; 3 p. M., temp. 102.4 '■> swelling about disappeared ; no 
discharge. Each day, since opening wounds in scrotum, it was 
washed out with sublimate solution ; discharged. 

No. IX. (1055) was a black four-year-old colt, weight about 
1000 lbs., in good condition. May 9, 1898, admitted to ward and 
prepared for operation. ]\Iay loth, placed upon operating table 
and operated upon under aseptic precautions ; ligated the cords 
with silk ; closed wound with continuous sutures of silk, over 
which was placed wound gelatin ; at 4 p. m., temp. loi. May 
nth, 3 p. M., temp. 100.6 ; scrotum swollen very little. May 
I2th, 9 A. M., temp. 100.7 5 3 P-^-) temp. loi ; no change in scro- 
tum. May 13th, 9 A. M., temp. 99.8 ; 3 p. m., temp. 100.8. 
May 14th, 3 p. M., temp. 100.8 ; slight decrease in swelling of 
sheath. May 15th, 9 a. M.,temp. 99.4. May i6th, 9 a. m., temp. 
100.5 5 3 P- ^^-5 temp. 100.5 5 there is no appreciable swelling in 
sheath or scrotum. May 17th, 9 A. M., temp. 100. The epi- 
thelium is apparently closed over the wounds ; patient was dis- 
charged. 

No. X. (1062) was a bay colt, one year old, of medium size 
and in moderate condition. May 10, 1898, admitted to gen- 
eral ward and prepared for operation. May nth, the animal 
was placed on operating table and operated upon under aseptic 
precautions, ligated the cord with silk, closed scrotal wounds 
with silk, and applied w^ound gelatin. Temperature before op- 
erating, 101.2. iNIay 1 2th, 9 A. M., temp. 101.2 ; 3 p. m., temp. 
101.8 ; no swelling of scrotum. May 13th, 9 A. M., temp. 101.2 ; 
3 p. M., temp. 102.2. There is a very slight swelling of the 
scrotum. May 14th, 3 p. M., temp. 102.2 ; swelling about the 
same. May 15th, temperature not taken. May i6th, 3 p. m., 
temp. loi. May 17, colt out in paddock, did not take tempera- 
ture. ]\Iay 1 8th, discharged ; the scrotum not swollen, and the 
wound apparently closed over with epithelium. 

No. XI. (1063) was a bay stallion, seven years old ; w^eight 
about eleven hundred pounds, in medium condition, May 11, 



16 R. J. STANCLIFT. 



1898, animal admitted to general ward and prepared for opera- 
tion. May 1 2th, 11 A. M., placed npon operating table and 
operated upon under aseptic precautions, ligated the spermatic 
artery with silk, closed scrotal wounds with silk, and applied 
wound gelatin; 11.40 A. M., temp. 100.6, animal recovering 
from anaesthetic ; 2 P. m., temp. 99.4. May 13th, 9 A. M.,temp. 
loi ; 2 P. M., temp. 100.8; very slight swelling of scrotum. 
May 14th, 9 A. M., temp. 101.2 ; 2 p. m., temp. 101.2 ; scrotum 
about same. May 15th, 9 A. M., temp. 102.6 ; 6 P. M., temp. 101.7 ; 
animal quite constipated, for which gave laxative. May i6th, 
9 A. M., temp. 100.5 5 3 i'- ^^•) temp. 101.6. May 17th, 9 A. m., 
temp. 101.9 ; 2 P. M., temp. 101.6 ; scrotum not swollen at all. 
May i8th, temp. 102 ; 2 P. m., temp. 101.8. May 19th, 3 p. M., 
temp. 100.8. The wounds are apparently covered with epithe- 
lium ; discharged. During the last five days animal was badly 
constipated, but fully recovered before discharged. 

No. XII. (1056) was a black colt, three years old, w^eight 
about 900 lbs., in good condition. May 9, 1898, admitted to 
general ward and prepared for operation. May loth, placed on 
table and operated under aseptic precautions ; ligated the sper- 
matic artery with silk and closed scrotal wounds with a con- 
tinuous suture of silk. The animal was removed from table 
before he was able to stand and causing him to fall, soiling the 
scrotum and rubbing off the wound gelatin which had been 
applied. When he had recovered sufficiently to stand, the 
scrotum was washed with sublimate solution, and the patient 
returned to the general ward. May nth, 9 A. m., temp. 101.2 ; 
pulse 39 ; resp. 14 ; 3 p. m., temp. 101.2 ; pulse 39; resp. 14 ; 
scrotum about two-thirds original size. IMay 12th, 9 A. M. 
temp. 100.6 ; pulse 36 ; resp. 12 ; 3 p. m., temp. loi ; pulse 
36 ; resp. 12. May 13th, 9 A. M., temp. 100.6; pulse 36; resp. 
12 ; 3 P. M., temp. loi ; pulse 44 ; resp. 14 ; scrotum swollen 
moderately ; the sheath swollen somewhat more. INIay 14th, 
9 A. i\r., temp. 103 ; resp. 12 ; pulse 44; 3 p. m., temp. 102.4 5 
resp. 12 ; pulse 46. May 15th, 9 A. M., temp. 10 1.4 ; pulse 39 ; 
resp. 12. May i6th, 9 A. M., temp. loi ] pulse 37 ; resp. 12 ; 3 



ASEPTIC CASTRATION OF MALE ANIMALS. ]? 

P. M., temp. 1 02 ; pulse 36. A suture was broken on the right 
side, and there was a small amount of serum exuding. May 
17th, 9 A. M., temp. 101.6 ; pulse 38; resp. 12 ; 3 P. M., temp. 
102.2 ; pulse 38 ; resp. 12 ; the serum still continues to exude 
from right side ; the left side is doing finely ; swelling of 
scrotum much decreased. ]\Iay i8th, 9 A. m., temp. loi.i ; 
pulse 36; resp. 12 ; 3 p. m., temp. loi ; pulse 38; resp. 12 ; 
slight discharge of serum from right side. May 19th, 9 A. M., 
temp. loi ; pulse 36; resp. 12 ; 3 p. m., temp. loi ; pulse 36; 
resp. 12.^ May 20th, 9 a. m., temp. 100.4 5 p^ilse 36 ; resp. 12 ; 
3 p. M., temp. 100.4; P^^lse 36; resp. 12 ; the sheath and scro- 
tum is still slightly swollen ; the left wound has healed by 
primary adhesion ; and the right is healing by secondary inten- 
tion, without perceptible pus formation. 

No. XIII. (1069) was a brown colt, two years old ; weight about 
800 lbs., in poor condition. May 12th, admitted to ward and 
prepared for operation. May 13th, placed upon table and oper- 
ated upon, under aseptic precautions ; ligated spermatic artery 
with silk, closed scrotal wounds with a continuous suture of 
silk. May 14th, 9 a. m., temp. 101.3 ; 3 P. M., 102; very 
slight swelling of scrotum. May 15th, 9 A. M., temp. 101.8 ; 3 
P. M., temp. 102. May i6th, 9 A. M., temp. loi.i ; 3 P. M., 
temp. 100.8; swelling of scrotum gone down. May 17th, 
9 A. M., temp. 101.4; 3 p. M., temp. 100.8. May i8th, 9 
A. M., temp. 100. 1. May 19th, 3 p. m., temp. 100. May 
20th, 3 p. M., temp. 100 ; wounds healed over ; patient dis- 
charged. 

SUMMARY. 

The only literature available upon this subject is an article 
by Frick (6), in which he speaks of Bayer operating upon fifteen 
cases under aseptic precautions, where he had healing by primary 
adhesion in four cases on both sides, and in two cases on one 
side, so that out of thirty operation wounds, ten healed by pri- 
mary adhesion or thirty-three and one-third per cent. The other 
wounds healed according to Bayer's opinion better than where 
operated upon with clamps. Frick, in speaking of Bayer's op- 



18 



R. J. STANCLIFT. 



eratioii, says he does not think it is practical in private practice^ 
as Bayer only ligated the spermatic artery, and when the ani- 
mal got up there would be bleeding from the veins. 

TEMPERATURE CHART. 



No. OF 
Case. 



III. 

IV. 

V. 



I. — 9 A. M. 

3 P- M- 
II. — 9 A.M. 

3 P- >!• 
-9 A.M. 

3 '•• •'^• 

"9 A.M. 
3 P.M. 
-9 A.M. 

3 P- M- 

VI. — 9 A.M. 

3 P- !^- 
VII. 9 A.M. 

3 P- M. 

VIII.— 9 A.M. 
3 P- M. 

IX. — 9 A. ^r. 
3 p. M. 

X. — 9 A.M. 

3 P- M. 

XI. — 9 A.M. 

3 P- M- 

XII.— 9 A.M. 

3 A.M. 

XIII.— 9 A.M. 



Temp, 
day of 
Opera- 
tion. 



Not 
taken, 

Not 
taken 

/ 



rem 



loo. 

loo. 

Not 
taken. 

Not 
taken. 

Not 
taken. 

loi . 

lOI .2 

q9.4 

Not 
taken. 

Not 
taken. 



Temperature after operation. 



ist 
day 



I00.2 

100. I 

IOI.2 
IOI.2 

peratu 

loi . I 

101. I 

loi. 

lOI .2 

loi .6 
loi 5 
I00.6 



lOI 



I00.6 

lOI .2 

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lOI. 

I00.8 

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IOI.3 

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2d 3d 

day. day. 



lOI. 
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lOI.I 
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re not 'taken 

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101.3 lOI . I 



4th 
day. 

100.4 



100.2 
100.2 
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day. 



6th 
day. 



day. 



103 
lOI , 

101, 



IOI.2 100. 

IOI.6 102.7 



lOI. 
lOI . 

102. 
100. 

102. 
100. 

lOI. 

roi . 
102. 
loi . 

lOI . 

100. 
roi. 

lOI. 

102. 



102.2 

I02. 
lOI. 

100.7 

IOI.7 

99. B 

100.8 

I 

102.2 

102.6 

loi .7 

100.6 

lOI .0 

lOI . I 

100.8 



lOI 
lOI, 
lOI 
lOI, 



100.8 

Not 

taken. 



IOI.5 
ioo„ 

Not 
taken. 

9 -4 



101.8 

103. 
100.6 

lOI. 

loi . 

Not 
taken. 
105.8 
102.8 
100.5 
100. c; 



100 

lOI . 

103. 
102. 
loi. 
100. 



lOI 
lOI 
lOI 

101 



102. 

loi.; 

lOI . 

102. 



105. 
106. 

100. 
100. 



lOI .2 

IOI.6 

103.4 

100. 



100.8 
loi .6 
102. 

100. 1 



8th 


9th 


day. 


day. 


103.8 


104.5 


104.2 


103.5 




loi .3 


103. 


lOI . 


lOI.I 


lOI. 


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loi. 



loth 
day. 



lOI, 
102, 



100.6 
102.4 



100.4 
100.4 



Frick operated upon some animals under aseptic precautions 
by what he considered a more practical method. His method 
was, one-half hour before operating, the animal was given .5 
grammes hydrochlorate of morphine. The animal was placed 
upon his back, and the scrotum, sheath, inner thighs and neigh- 
boring parts washed with soap and water. This w^as rinsed off 
with sublimate solution, i-iooo, then an incision was made in 
the scrotum, barely large enough to allow the testicle to be 
pressed out ; when the testicle was exposed, an assistant poured 
sublimate solution over it. The testicular cord was perforated 
just anterior to the vas deferens, making two porticns, and li- 
gated each portion firmly with sublimated silk. To prevent the 



ASEPTIC CASTRATION OF MALE ANIMALS. 



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20 R. J. STANCLIFT. 



ligature slipping off, a part of the epididymis was allowed to re- 
main on the cord, when the testicle was excised. This, he says, 
is aseptic and is resorbed. The scrotal sac was washed out with 
sublimate solution and the wound closed with sutures. The 
operation was repeated upon the opposite side, and the animal 
allowed to rise, when the scrotum was again washed with subli- 
mate solution. The instruments iised and the operator's hands 
were disinfected with sublimate solution, i-iooo. There oc- 
curred in most of his cases, on the second or third day after op- 
erating, a fever, which, he says, may attain 103.6° F., but which 
was due to aseptic resorption fever and can be differentiated 
from septic fever, as the animal is bright and eats well in the 
former, while in the latter there is dullness and no appetite. 
But in comparison with the results obtained here, it would ap- 
pear that, where the temperature ran up as high as 103.6° F., 
there was infection, as is illustrated by case No. IV. Here the 
animal was bright ; but from the clot there was obtained a pure 
culture of staphylococcus pyogenes aiu^eus. The only complica- 
tion which followed his operation was bleeding, which some- 
times appeared after the horse had risen. Frick thinks this is 
subcutaneous, and says that it does not interfere with healing 
unless it is abundant so as to press the edges of the wound apart 
and that hematomata the size of a child's head are readily ab- 
sorbed. 

If larger hematomata appear, the sutures should be taken 
out on the fourth or fifth day, the clot removed, and the wound 
rinsed out once daily with sublimate solution, until healing oc- 
curs. It is noteworthy in these cases that we have healing by 
secondary intention, without suppuration. He castrated twelve 
horses, which varied in size from a pony to a very heavy draft 
animal, and in seven cases there was healing by primary adhe- 
sion on both sides ; in two cases on one side. The remaining 
wounds healed by secondary intention, so in twenty-four wounds, 
sixteen healed by primary adhesion, or sixty-six two-thirds per 
cent ; but from the results obtained in our operations it seems 
that it would decrease the danger to use boiled or distilled water 



ASEPTIC CASTRATION OF MALE ANIMALS. " 21 

to wash the scrotum before making the incisions, and also to 
wash away any blood after the testicle is exposed, and thus not 
allow any of the sublimate solution to enter the peritoneal sac 
of the scrotum, which would increase the danger of infection 
with the pus producing organisms (7), as the sublimate would 
act as a chemical irritant and produce the death of the adjacent 
cells, which would be a medium for bacteria to live upon until 
they gained a foot-hold and as the sublimate would combine 
with the albumen of the tissues and form an albuminate, it 
would not have any inhibitory action upon their growth ; while 
if such a few obtained entrance without the sublimate solution, 
the living cells would be able to overcome them and we would 
have practical sepsis. 

Of the thirteen cases operated upon here, ten healed by pri- 
mary adhesion on both sides and one on one side. The remain- 
ing wounds healed by secondary intention, which was much 
more rapid than it is by the usual methods of leaving the wound 
open, and in two of these wounds that healed by secondary in- 
tention, there was no perceptible pus formation. In all, there 
were twenty-six wounds, of which twenty-one healed by pri- 
mary adhesion or eighty per cent. The only complications oc- 
curring being hematoma in cases IV and VIII. In case IV the 
cord was ligated with catgut, which had been preserved in alcohol 
and which after being applied gradually became softened by 
the lymph in the tissues and relaxing allowed the spermatic 
artery to bleed. In case VIII, the covered operation was performed 
and the ligature was passed around the envelopes and the cord, 
but was not drawn sufficiently tight to thoroughly compress and 
retain the spermatic artery. The ligation over the inner enve- 
lopes in the covered operation would be practical in yearling 
colts and those under that age, but would not be practical, as a 
rule, in those older than one year. 

The temperature of those animals which healed by primary 
adhesion did not exceed 102.4° ^-i ^s reference to the chart on 
pages 18 and 19 will show, and only in those cases where there 
was infection was there a high temperature. This would make 



22 ' R. J. STANCLIFT. 



it appear that the high temperatures reported by Frick were 
due either to slight infection, or to the introduction of an irri- 
tant into the scrotum in the form of the sublimate solution, and 
that it was not due to the resorption of the ligated end of the 
cord ; but the time at which his high temperatures occurred 
corresponds to the date at which infection fever usually takes 
place. 

In carrying on these operations, it was found best to make 
some changes, which appeared to be and proved more practical. 
The first was the use of sterile silk instead of catgut to ligate 
the spermatic cord. 

The use of silk to close the scrotal wounds was also found 
best. This was used both as interrupted and continuous sutures. 
The interrupted suture was found to give the best results, as it 
was only with the continuous suture that there was any infec- 
tion, though there were a number which healed by primary ad- 
hesion, where the continuous suture was used. 

The use of some agent, such as wound gelatin, to apply to 
the wounds after operation was performed was found to be 
much more convenient, as it does away with the necessity of 
applying antiseptics to the scrotum daily until healing occurs. 
There may be other agents, which would answer the same pur- 
pose. The requirements are : 

A substance which can be applied to a moist surface and 
will stick, and when dry it must be flexible and not crack when 
bent. The agent in itself must be sterile and capable of re- 
maining so. The method of ligation of the spermatic artery 
which was performed in the last three cases deserves still 
further trial, as in two cases there was very little swelling, 
practically none. In case XII there was considerable swelling, 
but this can be accounted for by the accident caused by remov- 
ing the animal from the table before it was able to stand. The 
principal reason to recommend this method is that we introduce 
a smaller ligature and cause the death of a less amount of tis- 
sue, which must be resorbed. 

The objectiou raised to the performance of the aseptic opera- 



ASEPTIC CASTRATION OF MALE ANIMALS. 23 

tion in private practice is that it is not practical and that it re- 
quires a skilled operator and great care in reference to tech- 
nique. The objections can be refuted by reference to the con- 
densed table on pages i8 and 19. This gives the previous ex- 
perience of the operator in castration, the previous experience 
with the aseptic operation, the mode of operating and the results 
obtained. By reference to this, it will be seen that nine differ- 
ent men operated during this series of observations, six of whom 
had not castrated an animal before, and yet every one of these 
obtained healing by primary adhesion. 

It would appear that if the operation could be carried out 
successfully by an inexperienced student, that it would be prac- 
tical in private practice, especially with a surgeon, who has be- 
come skillful in the manipulation of the testicle, and who has a 
thorough knowledge of aseptic surgery. The operating table 
was used as the method of restraint in connection with the use 
of a general anaesthetic in these cases, though it would appear 
that casting an animal upon clean, green turf would be as suc- 
cessful, but the general anaesthetic is almost a necessity to ob- 
tain practical antisepsis. 

With the present methods of operating, and after treat- 
ment of the wounds, the veterinarian cannot expect to obtain 
any better results than the empiric, who uses the same methods 
and can do the operation for a much smaller fee than the vet- 
erinarian. 

It is only under such conditions as will lessen the dangers 
of it that the veterinarian can expect to command this impor- 
tant operation with proper compensation. 

I think that the conclusions that can be drawn from the 
results of this series of operations are : 

First. — The aseptic operation is a practical success in the 
clinic. 

Seco7id. — It would be a practical success in private practice. 

Third. — By aseptic methods, we lessen the dangers of cas- 
tration, and should therefore be able to command these opera- 
tions. 



24 R. J. STANCLIFT. 



Fourth. — With our present knowledge of bacteriology, we 
owe it to the veterinary profession and to onr clients, that we 
should perform all operations by antiseptic methods. 

In closing this paper, I would like to acknowledge the assist- 
ance received from Profs. W. L. Williams, James Law, V. A. 
Moore and Mr. R. C. Reed. 

BIBLIOGRAPHY. 

(i) "Animal Castration " — A. Liautard. 

(2) " AnomaHes and Curiosities of Medicine " — Gould & Pylo. 

(3) " Practice of Veterinary Medicine " — Courtney. 

(4) " Principles and Practice of Veterinary Surgery " — Williams. 

(5) " Manual of Veterinary Microbiolog}' " — Mosselman-Lienaux. 

(6) " Zeitschrift fur Thiermedicin und Pathologic, 1889. P. 204. 

(7) " Principles of Bacteriology " — Abbott, M. D. P. 247. 

(8) "Moller's Operative Veterinary Surgery " — Moller-Dollar. P. 2. 



''TJicrc is hereby csfab/is/icd a Staic Wicrinary ColUiic at 
Conitll l.^)iii'crsilyy Laics of Ncic )'ork, /cSVy/, />. J'^/. 



ANNOUNCEMENT 



OF THK 



NEW YORK STATE 

VETERINARY COLLEGE 



AT 



CORNELL UNIVERSITY 



1898-99 



ITHACA, N. Y. 

PUBLIvSHED BY THE UNIVERSITY 

1898 



TABLE OF CONTENTS 



PAGE 

Calendar Second pai^e of cover 

Table of Contents 2 

Officers of Administration 3 

Faculty 3-4 

Veterinary Collet^e Directory 4 

I'oundalion and Objects of tbe College . 5-6 

Buildings and I/)cation 7 

Adnnssion on Certificate .S-9 

Admission on Kxamination 9-19 

Admission to Advanced vStanding _. 19 

Time of Kxaminations Second page of cover 

Admission to Graduate Work 20 

Residence and Registration . 20 

Requirements for Graduation__ 20, 22 

Schedule of the Courses of Instruction 20-21 

Departments, Methods and I<'acilities 22-37 

Chemistry 22 

Anatoni}^ 23 

Comparative Ph3'siology 25 

Microscopy, Histology and Embr3'olog3' 26 

College of Agriculture, Breeds and Breeding. 28 

Pharmacolog}^ and Therapeutics 29 

Medicine, Sanitary Science and Parasitism 30 

Surgery, Zootechn^', Obstetrics and Jurisprudence. 31 

Pathology, Bacteriology and Meat Inspection 35 

Graduate and Research Work 37 

Library P'acilities 37 

The Roswell P. Flower Veterinar}- Library 37 

Veterinary College Seminary 38 

Society of Comparative Medicine 38 

Tuition and Laborator}^ Fees ; other Expenses 38-39 

Horace K. White Prizes 39 

Position as Demonstrator ... 39 

Appendix A. Openings for Veterinarians in America 40 

Appendix B. Legal requirements of preparator}- and professional 
study for graduation in Veterinar)- Medicine in the State of 
New York. Re(iuirements for License to practice Veterinary 

Medicine in the State of New York_ 8, 41 

Catalog of Veterinary College Students for the year 1897-1898 43 



OFFICERS OF ADMINISTRATION 

OF THIC 

NEW YORK STATE VimCRINARV COLLIvGE 



Tlie Board of Trustees of Cornell I'niversity, in which are included 
the followiui;- State Officers : His Kxcellency the Governor, His Hou(;r, 
the Lieutenant-Governor, the Speaker of the Assembly, the Superin- 
tendent of Public Instruction ; also the President of the vState Agricultural 
Society, and the Commissioner of Agriculture. 



Vkterinarv College Council. 

The President of Cornell University^ ]K^O^ G. SCHURMAN. 

The Director of the Veterinary College, Professor JAMES LAW. 

The Treasurer of Cornell University. EMIMONS L. \VILLL\MS. 

Professor WALTER L. WILLL\MS. 

ProfessorS\^\0^ H. GAGE. 

CHARLES EZRA CORNELL, Secretary of the Council. 



FACULTY OF THE 
NEW YORK STATE YETERINARY C0LLE:GE. 



JACOB GOULD SCHURMAN, A.INL, D.Sc, LL.D., President. 

JAMES LAW, F.R.C.Y.S., Professor of Principles and Practice of Vet- 
erinary Medicine, Veterinary Sanitary Science, and Parasitism. 

WALTER L. Wn.LL\MS, D.Y.S., Professor of Principles and Practice of 
Veterinary Surgery, Obstetrics, Zootechny, and Jurisprudence. 

PIERRE AUGUSTINE FISH, D.Sc, D.V.S., Assistant Professor of 
Comparative Physiology, Pharmacology and Therapeutics. 

VERANUS ALVA MOORE, B.S., M.D , Professor of Comparative Path- 
ology and Bacteriology, and of Meat Inspection. 

SIMON HENRY GAGE, B.S., Professor of Microscopy, Histology and 
Embryology. 

GRANT SHERMAN HOPKINS, D.Sc, Assistant Professor of Vet- 
erinary Anatomy and Anatomical Methods. 

BENJAMIN FREEMAN KINGSBURY, A.B., Ph.D., Instructor in Mi- 
croscopy, Histology and Embryology. 

RAYMOND CLINTON REED, Ph.B., Instructor in Comparative Path- 
ology and Bacteriology. 
, Demo7istrator of Anatomy. 



4 \EU' } 'ORK S 7 A TE I 'E TERLWl R ) ' COL L EGE 

PROFKSSORS AND Ti;ACHHKS IN CoRNlU,!, UnIVF.RSITV WHO FURNISH 

Instruction to Vktkrinarv Stiidknts. 

GEORGE CHAPMAN CALDWELL, B.S., Ph.D.. Professor of AgiiciU- 
Inral and Analytical Chemistry. 

IvSAAC PHlLLIPvS ROBERTvS, M.Agr., Professor of AgricHllinc. 

WILLIAM RIDGELY ORNDORFF, A.K., Ph.D., Assistant Professor 
of Organic and Physiological Chemistry. 

HENRY HIRAM WING, M.S., Assistant Professor of Animal Indus- 
try and Dairy Husbandry. 

FREDERICK LAWRIvNCE KURTRIGHT, D.Sc, Instructor in Chem- 
istry. 



Vktkrinarv Coij.kivk Dirkctorv. 

The President of the University. JACOB G. SCHURINIAN, 2 Morrill 

Hall. 
The Dean of the Veterinary College, Professor JAMES LAW, Room 

2, s. e. corner, 1st floor of the Veterinary College. 
P;Y7/?5.s^r WALTER L. WILLIAMS, Room 3, n. w. corner, 1st floor. 
ProfessorVV^^ViM A. PISH, Room 11, 11. w. corner, 2d floor. 
Professor QrKK^'S: S. HOPKINS, Room 12, 11. e. corner, 2d floor. 
Pr^y^^.wr VERANUS A. MOORE, Room 13, s. w. corner, 3d floor. 
Professor ^UslO^ H. GAGE, Room 14, s. e. corner, 3d floor. 
Instructor B. F. KINGSBURY, Room iS, n. e. corner, 3d floor. 
///.s//7^r/(;/- RAYiNIOND C. RPUiD, Room 17, 11. w. corner, 3d floor. 
Veterinary College Clerk, CHARLES IvZRA C0RNP:LL, Room i, 

s. w. corner, ist floor. 
The Stud Groom, GEORGE 1. BOVIER, Cottage cast of Main 

Bnilding (see plan, p. 7). 



FOUNDATION. 



The New York State Veterinary College was established by act of the 
State Legislature in 1894. "There is hereby established a State Veteri- 
nary- College at Cornell University," Laws of New York 1894, p. 307. By 
action of the Board of Trustees of Cornell University, June 10, 1894, the 
location of the College upon the University Campus was authorized. It 
was further enacted that while the L'niversity does not undertake any 
financial responsibility for the buildings, equipment or maintenance of 
the College, it does consent to furnish instruction upon such subjects as 
are or shall be in its curriculum upon such terms as may be deemed 
equitable. 

By further acts of the Legislature provision for the buildings, equip- 
ment and maintenance of the College were made and finally in 1897, b}" 
"An act to provide for the administration of the State Veterinary- College, 
established by chapter 153 of the laws of 1894," it was enacted that the 
Trustees of Cornell University should be entrusted with the administra- 
tion. (For officers of administration, see p. 3 ). 

OBJECTS OF THE INSTITUTION. 

As stated in the act to provide for the administration of the State 
Veterinary College : ''The State Veterinary College, established by chap- 
ter /^j of the laws of i8g4, shall be known as the JSiew York State Veteri- 
nary College. The object of said veterinary college shall be : to conduct 
investigations as to the nature, prevention a7id cure of all diseases of ani- 
mals, including such as are communicable to man ajid such as cause 
epizootics among live stock ; to investigate the economical questions which 
will contribute to the more profitable breediiig, rearing aiid utilization of 
animals; to produce reliable standard preparatiotis of toxijis, antitoxins 
and other products to be used in the diagnosis, prevention and cure of 
diseases and in the conductiftg of sanitary work by approved modern 
methods ; and to give instruction in the normal structure and function of 
the animal body, in the pathology, preventiofi and treatment of animal 
diseases, and in all matters pertaining to sanitary science as applied to live 
stock and correlatively to the human family.'' 

The New- York State Veterinary College was therefore founded to 
raise the standard of veterinary instruction and investigation to the level 



6 NEW YORK STATE VETERINARY COLLEGE 

of the most recent advances in biology and medicine. The number of 
farm animals in this State (9,450,000), and their value (1131,200,000), 
with a yearly product, in milk alone, of over 5,000,000,000 gallons, give 
some idea of the great interest at stake in the matter of live stock. For 
the United States a value in live stock of, approximately, |;2, 000, 000, 000, 
and a yearly sale, in Chicago alone, of 1250,000,000 worth, bespeak 
the need of all that learning and skill can do for the fostering of this 
great industry. Another consideration is that the normal permanent 
fertilization of the soil is dependent on the live stock kept, and that 
where there is a deficiency of animals, the productiveness of the land is 
steadih' exhausted ; so that the health and improvement of animals and 
the fostering of animal industry, lie at the very foundation of our 
national wealth. Another, and no less potent argument, for the highest 
standard of veterinary education, is its influence on the health of the 
human race. With a long list of communicable diseases, which are com- 
mon to man and beast, and with the most fatal of all human maladies — 
tuberculosis — also the most prevalent affection in our farm herds in 
many districts, it is to the last degree important that measures for the 
extinction of such contagion in our live stock should receive the best 
attention of the most highly trained experts. 

To justif}^ the liberality of the State in creating this seat of learning, 
it will be the aim of the College to thoroughly train a class of veterinari- 
ans for dealing with all disease and defects that depreciate the value of 
our live stock, and with the causes which give rise to them ; to recognize 
and suf!)press animal plagues, which rob the stock owner of his profits, 
and cause widespread ruin ; to protect our flocks and herds against pesti- 
lences of foreign origin, and to protect human health and life against 
diseases of animal origin. It will further aim, so far as it has the means 
and opportunity, at establishing a center of investigation, looking 
towards such improvements in the breeding, care and management of 
animals as ma}- enhance their market value and make returns more 
speedy and profitable ; towards discoveries in therapeutics, and the im- 
munization of animals and men from contagion ; and towards the 
production of organic compounds to be employed in diagnosis, tr.eatment 
and immunizing. So much has been recently discovered in these direc- 
tions, and present knowledge points so unmistakabl}' to coming discov- 
ery, that to neglect this field at the present time would be decidedly rep- 
rehensible. Apart from discover}-, the mere production of reliable articles 
of these organic products which are coming into increasing demand by 
the State and private practitioner, for prevention, diagnosis and treat- 
ment, is an object not to be lightly set aside. The combination in one 
institution of educational facilities with scientific investigation, and the 
production of the organic extracts to be employed in modern medical 
methods, is a feature calculated to insure the best work in all depart- 
ments, and the most exceptional advantages for the diligent student. 



NEW YORk^ STATE VETERINARY COLLEGE 7 

LOCATION AND BUILDINGS. 

The New York State Veterinary College is located at Ithaca, on the 
•campus of Cornell University, fronting on East Avenue, and facing the 
University buildings. Electric cars on East Avenue convey students and 
visitors to any part of the city. Ithaca, with its population of 12,000, is 
situated at the head of Cayuga Cake, 262 miles distant from New York 
City, and on the lines of the Delaware, Lackawanna and Western, the 
Lehigh Valley, and the Elmira, Cortland and Northern railroads. The 
University grounds are half a mile from the business center of the city 
and 400 feet higher, commanding a view of 30 miles of valley and lake. 
They comprise 270 acres, of which 140 are used by the department of 
agriculture, and furnish home facilities for clinics and zootechnics. On 
the campus of 80 acres are 36 professors' houses, 5 fraternity houses, and 
over 30 University and College buildings. 

The BUII.DINGS for the State Veterinary College are seven in number, 
as follows : 



Shed 



Operating Theatre 



General Ward 



Isolation Ward 



Mortuary 



Cottage 



Main Building 



N^ 



The Main Building, 142 feet by 42 feet and three stories high, 
overlooks East Avenue and an intervening park of 220 feet by 300 feet. 
The walls are of dull yellowish buff pressed brick, on a base of Gouver- 
neur marble ; window and door facings of Indiana limestone, and terra 
cotta ornamentation. On the first floor are the museum and rooms of 
the dean and professor of surgery and obstetrics, and business office 
(Plate I). The second floor is devoted to the upper part of the museum, 
a lecture room, a temporary laboratory of Physiology and Pharmacology, 
reading room, library and rooms of professors (Plate II). The third floor 



8 NE IV ) 'ORK S TA TE I E TERINA R Y COL L EGE 

is devoted to the laboratories of jjathology and bacteriology and of 
microscopy, histology and embryology (Plate III). 

Connected with the main building and forming its Kast Win(; is a 
structure of 90 feet by 40, and one story high. This contains the anatomi- 
cal laboratories, and the lecture room of anatomy, medicine and surgery. 
Its floors are of impermeable cement, the walls lined by enameled white 
brick, and the ceilings covered with sheet steel (Plate I). 

The second extension from the main building is the Boiler and 
Engine Room, where power is generated for heating and ventilation. 

The Surgical Opkrating Theatre is a separate building in the 
rear of the main building, and is furnished with room for forge, instru- 
ments, water heater, etc. The lighting and equipment, and the facilities 
for demonstration, have been specially attended to (Plate I). 

The General Patient's Ward, 100 feet by 31, is furnished with 
box and other stalls, heating apparatus, baths and all necessary appli- 
ances. The floor is of impermeable cement, and the ceilings of painted 
sheet steel. There is also a fodder room of 20 by 30 feet (Plate VI). 

The Isolation Ward 54 feet by 15, has its stalls absolutely sepa- 
rated from one another and each opening by its own outer door. It has 
the usual impermeable floor, with walls of vitrified brick and painted 
sheet steel ceilings. 

The Mortuary Building has an impermeable floor, walls of enam- 
eled brick and painted steel plate ceilings, and is fitted with every con- 
venience for conducting post mortem examinations and preparing 
pathological specimens. 

The Shed 51 by 20 feet, next the operating theatre is devoted to 
clinical uses. 

These, with a cottage for the stud groom, complete the list of State 
buildings erected for the Veterinary College. The equipment has been 
made very complete both for educational uses and original research. 

For a more detailed account of the equipment and the facilities for 
instruction see "Departments, methods and facilities," pp. 22-37. 

ADMISSION TO THE NEW YORK STATE 
VETERINARY COLLEGE. 

admission on certificate. 

For admission the candidate must possess at least the preliminary 
education required by the laws of New York (Laws of 1895, Ch. 860). 
As evidence that the requirements have been fulfilled, the regents issue 
"Veterinary Student Certificates," and one of these must be filed with 
the Director of the college. 

Briefly stated the legal preliminary educational requirement for 
admission is that the candidate must have satisfactorily completed a 
course requiring at least 48 academic, Regents' counts in a registered 



Nf: II ' } ORK S TA TE 1 7i TERIXA R ) ' COL L EGE g 

academy or high school, or he must have had a preliminary education 
considered and accepted by the Rejjjents as fully equivalent. A student 
may be admitted conditionally to a veterinar}- college who is not deficient 
in more than 12 of the 48 academic counts, but the deficiency must be 
made up before beginning the second year of professional study, if that 
study is to count toward a degree. 

The Regents will accept as fully equivalent to the required academic 
course any one of the following : 

1. A baccalaureate degree from the academic department of any 
college or university of recognized standing. 

2. A certificate of having successfully completed at least one full 
Year's course of study in the collegiate department of any college or 
university, registered by the Regents as maintaining a satisfactory 
standard. 

3. A certificate of having passed in a registered institution examin- 
ations equivalent to the full collegiate course of the freshman year or to 
a completed academic course. 

4. Regents' pass cards for any 48 academic counts or any regents' 
diploma. 

5. Certificate of graduation from any registered gymnasium in 
Germany, Austria "or Russia. 

6. A certificate of the successful completion of a course of five 3'ears 
in a registered gituiasio and three years in a liceo. 

7. The bachelor's degree in arts or science, or substantial equiv- 
alents from any registered institution in France or Spain. 

8. Any credential from a registered institution, or from the govern- 
Tnent in any state or country which represents the completion of a course 
of study equivalent to graduation from a registered New York ^igh 
school or academy or from a registered Prussian gymnasium. 

(For full information concerning the education necessary to obtain 
the "Veterinary Student Certificate" or for the acceptance as equivalents 
of work done in the academies or high schools of this or of other states, 
not under the Regents, address Examination Department, University of 
the State of New York, Albany, N. Y.) 

ADMISSION ON EXAMINATION. 

For the present, students with a "Regents' Veterinary Student Cer- 
tificate" will be admitted without further examination. For those not 
possessing such a certificate, admission may be granted to students who 
pass Cornell University entrance examinations as follows : (The Veteri- 
nary College Facult}^ does not hold entrance examinations. All entrance 
examinations are given by the Faculty of Arts and Sciences): 

The following, representing an equivalent of 24 regents' counts, 
must be passed by every one trying the examination : ( The number of 
•counts each subject represents is given in parenthesis). 



lO NEW YORK STATE VETERINARY COLLEGE 

English (8). Geography, physical and political ( 2). Physiology and 
Hygiene (2). Drawing (2). American History and Civics (2). Plane 
Geometry (4). Algebra (4). 

For an equivalent of the remaining 24 regents' counts the applicant 
may elect a sufficient number from any combination of the following : 

Elementary French (4). Elementary German (4). Advanced French 
(6). Advanced German (6). Entrance Greek (11). Latin, Caisar and 
Grammar (8). Latin, Vergil, Cicero and Composition (7). Physics (4). 
Chemistry (4). Botany (4). Geology (4). Zoology (4). 

The statements heloiu are designed to give an idea of luhat is expeeted 
under each subject. 

English : One hour of examination is assigned to answering 
questions upon the books marked A. Two more hours are occupied 
with writing three essays (250 words each ) upon subjects taken from the 
books marked B. 

The books prescribed for 1898 are : A. Milton, Paradise Lost, Books i 
and ii ; Pope, Iliad, Books i and xxii ; The Sir Roger de Coverly Papers 
in the Spectator ; Goldsmith, The Vicar of Wakefield ; Coleridge, The 
Ancient Mariner ; Southey, Life of Nelson ; Carlyle, Essay on Burns ; 
Lowell, The Vision of Sir Launfal ; Hawthorne, The House of the 
Seven Gables. B. Shakespeare, Macbeth ; Burke, Conciliation with 
America ; DeOuincey, Flight of a Tartar Tribe ; Tennyson, The 
Princess. 

For 1899 : A. Dryden, Palamon and Arcite ; Pope, Iliad, Books i, 
vi, xxii, xxiv ; The Sir Roger de Coverly Papers in the Spectator : 
Goldsmith, The Vicar of Wakefield ; Coleridge, The Ancient Mariner : 
DeOuincey, The Flight of a Tartar Tribe ; Cooper, The Last of the 
Mohicans ; Lowell, The Vision of Sir Launfal ; Hawthorne, The House 
of the Seven Gables. B. Shakespeare, Macbeth ; Milton, Paradise Lost. 
Books i and ii ; Burke, Conciliation with America ; Carlyle, Essay on 
Burns. 

For 1900 : A. Dryden, Palamon and Arcite ; Pope, Iliad, Books, i, vi, 
xxii, xxiv ; The vSir Roger de Coverly Papers in the Spectator ; Gold- 
smith, The Vicar of Wakefield ; Scott, Ivanhoe ; DeQuincey, The Flight 
of a Tartar Tribe ; Cooper, The Last of the Mohicans ; Tennyson, The 
Princess; Lowell, The Vision of Sir Launfal. B. Shakespeare, Mac- 
beth ; Milton, Paradise Lost, Books i and ii ; Burke, Conciliation with 
America ; Macaulay, Essays on Milton and on Addison. 

The object of the examination is to test the candidate's ability to 
express himself clearly and correctly ; also, to test his familiarity with 
the works prescribed. 

No ca7ididate markedly deficient iji English zcill he ad)nitted to any 
course in the Ufiiversity. 

Geography, Political and Physical : As much as is contained irL 
the larger school geographies, and in Tarr's "Physical Geography." 



NEW YORK' STATE VETERINARY COLLEGE ii 

Physiology and L/virirnt' : The equivalent of Martin's "The Human 
Body" (briefer course), and of Wilder's "Health Notes" and "Emergen- 
•cies." The treatises of Hutchinson, Huxley, Jenkins, Steeles, and 
"Walker are accepted as equivalents of Martin. 

[In the next Register the above list will probably include'only the 
last editions of the secondary and short treatises of Jenkins, Martin, and 
Wilder, but recent works intended for use in colleges will be accepted as 
equivalents]. 

Drawing : To meet the requirement in drawing the student should 
have had a thorough training of the hand and eye in outline drawing 
from natural and conventional forms ; and he should be master of the 
principles of perspective and their application in the drawing of geomet- 
rical objects. The study of light and shade in models and from nature 
should be sufficient to enable him to sketch with accuracy and rapidity 
any of the simple forms and compositions that may be required. As a 
part of the examination the work of the student, certiiied by the teacher, 
should be submitted. 

American History ivith the Elei)ients of Civil Government : It is 
expected that the study of American History will be such as to 
show the development and origin of the institutions of our own 
country ; that it will, therefore, include the colonial beginnings ; and that 
it will deal with the period of discovery and early settlement sufficiently 
to show the relation of peoples on the American continent, and the 
meaning of the struggle for mastery. 

( The following requirements in Mathematics are the same as those 
-agreed upon by the Conference of representatives from Colum,bia, Har- 
vard, Pennsylvania, Princeton, Yale and Cornell Universities). 

Plane Geometry : Including the solution of simple original exer- 
cises, numerical problems, and questions on the metric system ; as much 
as is contained in the larger American and English text-books. 

Algebra : Factors, common divisors and multiples, fractions, equa- 
tions of the first degree with one or more unknown quantities, involution 
including the binomial theorem for positive entire exponents, evolution, 
the doctrine of exponents, radicals and equations involving radicals, 
quadratic equations of one or two unknown quantities and equations 
solved like quadratics, ratio and proportion, and putting problems into 
equations, and including radicals ; as much as is contained in the larger 
American and English text-books. 

[In the fundamental operations of Algebra, such as multiplication 
and division, the management of brackets, the solving of numerical 
and literal equations of the first and second degrees, the combining and 
simplifying of fractions and radicals, the interpretation and use of 
negative quantities and of o and co , the putting of problems into equa- 
tions — the student should have distinct notions of the meaning and the 
reason of all that he does, and be able to state them clearly in his own 



I 2 \E IV ) 'ORK ST A TE VE TERINAR Y COLL EGE 

language ; he slioukl also be able to perform all these operations, evert 
when somewhat complex, with rapidity, accuracy, and neatness ; and to 
solve practical problems readily and completely. In his preparatory- 
study he is advised to solve a great many problems, and to state and 
explain the reasons for the steps taken. 

In Geometry he should learn the definitions accurately, whether in 
the language of the text-book or not, and in proving a theorem or 
solving a problem he should be able to prove every statement made, 
going back step by step until he rests upon the primary definitions and 
axioms. He should be able to apply the principles of geometry to 
practical and numerical examples, to construct his diagrams readily 
with rule and compass, and to find for himself the solutions of simple 
problems and the demonstrations of simple theorems. To cultivate 
this power of origination, he should always, before reading the solu- 
tion or proof given in his text-book, try to find out one for himself, 
making use, if necessary, of his author's diagram ; and if successful, he 
should compare critically his own work with his author's and see 
wherein either is the better. Besides oral recitations, he is advised to 
write out his demonstrations, having regard both to the matter and to 
the form of his statements ; and when written he should carefully 
study them to make sure, first, that he has a complete chain of argu- 
ment, and secondly, that it is so arranged that without defect or 
redundance one step follows as a logical consequence of another]. 

Elerncutary French or Elementary Geruian as below. 

( The following requirements for admission to Cornell University in 
Elementary French and Elementary German are the same as those qgreed 
upo?t by the Conference of representatives from Coluinbia, Harvard, Penn- 
sylvania, Princetoji, Yale, and Cornell Universities). 

Elementary French : (a) The translation at sight of ordinary nine- 
teenth century prose. It is important that the passages set be rendered 
into clear and idiomatic English. It is believed that the power of trans- 
lating at sight ordinary nineteenth century prose can be acquired by 
reading not less than four hundred duodecimo pages from the works of 
at least three different authors. Not more than one-half of this amount 
ought to be from works of fiction. This number of pages is to include 
not only prepared work, but all sight reading done in class, (b) The 
translation from English into French of sentences or of a short connected 
passage to test the candidate's familiarity with elementary grammar. 
Elementary grammar is understood to include the conjugations of verbs, 
of the more frequent irregular verbs, such as aller, envoyer, tenir, pouvoir, 
voir, vouloir, dire, savoir, faire, and those belonging to the classes repre- 
sented by ouvrir, dormir, connaitre, conduire, and craindre ; the forms 
and positions of personal pronouns, the uses of other pronouns and of 
possessive, demonstrative, and interrogative adjectives ; the inflection of 
nouns and adjectives for gender and number, except rare cases ; the uses- 
of articles, and the partitive constructions. 



NE IV ) 'ORK S TA IE I E 1 ERIXA R ) ' COL L Ei.E 1 3 

Pronunciation shoulil l)e carefully tauj^ht and pupils be trained to 
some extent to hear and understand spoken French. The writiny; of 
French from dictation is recommended as a useful exercise. 

For examination no specific authors or works are designated. An 
examination in pronunciation and the writing of French from dictation 
will be included. All applicants for admission are required to present a 
statement from their teacher mentioning the text-books used and the 
authors read, including the number of pages translated from PVench into 
English and English into French. 

Elcvientary Gerinan : (a) The rudiments of grammar, and espe- 
cially these topics ; The declension of articles, adjectives, pronouns, 
and such nouns as are readily classified ; the conjugation of weak and 
of the more usual strong verbs ; the commoner prepositions ; the simpler 
uses of the modal auxiliaries ; the elementary rules of syntax and word 
order. The proficiency of the applicant may be tested b}^ questions on 
the above topics and by the translation into German of simple English 
sentences. ( b. ) Translation at sight of a passage of easy prose contain- 
ing no rare words. It is believed that the requisite facility can be ac- 
quired by reading not less than two hundred duodecimo pages of simple 
German. 

Practice in pronunciation, in writing German from dictation, and in 
the use of simple German phra.ses in the class room is recommended. 

For examination no specific authors or works are designated. An 
examination in pronunciation and the writing of German from dictation 
may be included. All applicants for admission are required to present a 
statement from their teacher mentioning the text-books used and the 
authors read, including the number of pages translated from German 
into English, and English into German. 

In Advanced French or Advanced German : 

{^The followijig requirements for adfnission to Cornell University in 
Advanced French and Advanced German are the same as those agreed 
upon by the Conference of representatives from Columbia, Harvard^ 
Peniisylvania, Princeton, Yale, and Cornell Universities). 

Advanced Froich : (a) The translation at sight of standard French. 
It is important that the passages set be rendered into clear and idiomatic 
English. It is believed that the necessary proficiency in translation at 
sight can be acquired by reading, in addition to the elementary work, 
not less than six hundred duodecimo pages of prose and verse from the 
writings of at least four standard authors. A considerable part of the 
amount read should be carefully translated into idiomatic English, 
(b) The translation into French of a connected passage of English 
prose. Candidates will be expected to show a thorough knowledge of 
accidence and familiarit}- with the essentials of French .syntax, especially 
the uses of tenses, moods, prepositions, and conjunctions. Careful atten- 
tion should be paid to pronunciation and the uses of spoken French. 



1 4 NE n ' ) 'ORK S TA TE VE TERINA R ) ' COL L EGE 

r'or examination no specific authors or works are designated. An 
examination in pronunciation and the writing of French from dictation 
will be included. All applicants for admission are required to present a 
statement from their teacher, mentioning the text-books used and the 
authors read, including the number of pages translated from French into 
English and Knglish into French. 

Advanced Gcnnan : (a) More advanced grammar. In addition to 
a thorough knowledge of accidence, of the elements of word formation, 
-and of the principal uses of prepositions and conjunctions, the candidate 
must be familiar with the essentials of German syntax, and particularly 
with the uses of modal auxiliaries and the subjunctive and infinitive 
moods. The proficiency of the applicant may be tested by questions on 
these topics, and by the translation into German of easy connected Eng- 
lish prose, (b) Translation at sight of ordinary German. It is believed 
that the requisite facility can be acquired by reading, in addition to the 
amount mentioned under elementary German (see p. 13), at least five 
hundred pages of classical and contemporary prose and poetry. It is 
recommended that not less than one-half of this reading be selected from 
the works of Lessing, Schiller, and Goethe. 

It is recommended that the candidate acquire the ability to follow a 
recitation conducted in German and to answer in that language questions 
asked by the instructor. 

For examination no specific authors or works are designated. An 
examination in pronunciation and the writing of German from dictation 
may be included. All applicants for admission are required to present a 
statement from their teacher, mentioning the text-books used and the 
authors read, including the number of pages translated from German 
into English and English into German. 

C J reek : candidates are examined on ( i ) Grammar. A thorough 
knowledge of the common forms, idioms and constructions and of the ■ 
general grammatical principles of Attic prose Greek, to be tested by an 
examination on a prescribed portion of Xenophon (for the next five 
years Xenophon's Anabasis, Books I and II). The test is to consist in 
part of questions, in part of simple sentences set for translation into Greek ; 
it may include also translation from Greek into English. (2) Attic 
prose at sight. Ability to translate at sight a passage adapted to the 
proficiency of those who have read not less than 130 Teubner pages of 
Attic prose. The candidate is expected to show in his translation accurate 
knowledge of the forms and structure of the language, and an intelligent 
comprehension of the whole passage. ( 3 ) Homer. Abilit}- to translate 
a passage from some prescribed portion of Homeric poems (for the next 
three years), Iliad, Book I and Book II, vv. 1-493), and to answer ques- 
tions designed to test the candidate's understanding of the passage, as 
well as questions upon poetic forms, constructions, and prosody. 

Latin : candidates are examined ( i ) in the following authors : with 
questions on subject-matter, constructions, and the formation and in- 



NE ir } 'ORK S TA TE I 'E TERINA R ) ' COL L ECE i 5 

flection of words ; Vergil, six books of the -Kneid, with the prosody ; 
Cicero, six Orations, including the four against Catiline ; the translation 
at sight of passages adapted to the proficiency of candidates who have 
studied Latin in a systematic course of at least five lessons a week for 
three years, the passages to be selected from Nepos or Ca^vSar ; and 
(2) Latin composition based on Bennett's or Jones's Latin Composition. 

Physics : Students offering ph3^sics for entrance must show an 
acquaintance with the more important phenomena and with the princi- 
ples involved in the explanation of them. They must, in addition to a 
year's work with the text-book, have completed a year of laboratory 
practice and must be prepared to work simple numerical problems upon 
the laws of falling bodies ; upon the pendulum ; upon properties of 
liquids and gases, including the determination of density ; upon ther- 
mometry and calorimetry, including specific heats and heats of fusion 
and liquefaction ; upon the relations of current and electromotive force 
and resistance ; upon velocity, wave length and resonance in sound ; 
upon refractive indices, focal lengths and the size and position of images 
in optics. The student must understand and be able to use the metric 
system in measurement and computation. 

The laboratory work offered must be chiefly quantitative in char- 
acter, and must consist of at least forty exercises or experiments of the 
character given in Nichols' "Outlines of Physics," or other works 
similar to this in grade and method. The laboratory work prescribed 
above must have been performed by the student individually, in 
evidence whereof he must present his laboratory notebook at the time of 
examination. He must, moreover, be prepared to describe intelligently 
the method pursued and the results obtained in the experiments which 
he has performed. 

Chemistry : Remsen's "Introduction to the Study of Chemistry," or 
its equivalent, is to be taken as the basis of the examination. In addi- 
tion to that, laboratory practice must have been taken with the same 
book as a guide, or some other book of a similar character, representing 
eight}^ hours of actual work ; the notes upon this, carefully written out, 
must be presented at the time of the examination, and this record should 
be endorsed by the teacher at the close of each day's work. Problems in 
the calculation of gas volumes, and in stoichiometry will be included in 
the examination. Finally the applicant will be examined on such an 
amount of qualitative analysis as can be accomplished in eighty hours of 
actual practice in the laboratory. A carefully written and endorsed note 
book of this work must also be presented at the time of the examination. 

Botany : The student should aim to acquire a knowledge of the 
general law^s and fundamental principles of plant nutrition, assimilation, 
growth, etc., as exemplified by plants chosen from the different groups, 
as well as the general comparative morphology and the broader relation- 
ships of plants. 



1 6 yE 11) 'ORK ST A TE VE TERINA R ) ' COL LEGE 

The folk)\ving brief synopsis will sugjjjest the topics and methods of 
study : 

Study protoplasm in plants representing different groups, as 
spirogyra, mucor, nitella, and in the tissues of some of the higher plants, 
in order to demonstrate that this substance, though occurring in widely 
different plants, is fundamentally the same,' and reacts in a similar man- 
ner to treatment with certain simple reagents. 

Study absorption and osmose in plant cells, employing such plants 
as spirogyra, mucor, the cells of some higher plant as the beet, and in 
the root hairs of a seedling plant ; test the effect of salt solutions in 
plasmolyzing the cells of these plants, then the restoration of turges- 
cence in the same cells, and the movement of the protoplasmic mem- 
brane to demonstrate the part it plays in the process of absorption in 
plants. 

Study nutrition by com])arison of soil and water cultures in seedlings ; 
study also root pressure ; turgidity in plant parts and cell masses ; trans- 
piration : the path of movement of liquids in higher plants, and the general 
structure correlated with these processes ; study nutrition of parasites 
(carnation rust, dodder), of nmshroom. 

vStudy the movement of gases in carbon assimilation as shown by 
spirogyra, vaucheria, elodaea, etc., in respiration as shown in germinat- 
ing seeds ; study forms of chloroph3dl l^odies and the formation of starch, 
noting the parts of the plant where these processes take place, and using 
for comparison, spirogyra, zygnema, vaucheria, oedogonium ; liverworts 
like riccia, marchantia, cephalozia ; mosses like funaria, mnium ; and a 
few of the higher plants, including lemna. 

Study growth of seedlings w^itli reference to increase in length and 
<liameter, direction of growth ; irritabilit}- shown by movement of parts 
in response to stimuli. (The topics as above arranged, as far as possible 
represent progression of function, and the study of the low^er plants 
throws great light on the processes in the higher forms, and at the same 
time familiarizes the student with a few of these lower forms). 

Study general morphology, reproduction and fruiting in the different 
groups. Examples are suggested as follows : Among the algae, — spir- 
^ogyra, vaucheria, oedogonium, coleochatae ; among the fungi, — mucor, 
saprolegnia, puccinia (wheat rust), one of the erisypheae (powder}^ mil- 
dews), mushrooms; among the liverworts, — riccia, marchantia, cepha- 
lozia ; among the mosses, — funaria, mnium, or polytrichum ; among 
fern plants, — a fern, equisetum, selaginella, isoetes ; among gymnos- 
perms, — one of the pines ; among angiosperms, — one of the monocotyle- 
dons and a dicotyledon. ( In this study it will be found useful in deal- 
ing with the lower plants to use the same plant as often as possible for 
the different topics, since fewer new names will be introduced and the 
student can concentrate the mind upon processes and structures. The 
plants suggested are chosen for a purpose since the)- represent pro- 



XE ir ) 'ORk' STA TE \ E TERIXA R ) ' COL L EGE 1 7 

gression of form and structure. The student should study all the stages 
suggested from the actual material using text-books only as aids). 

In the algae, liverworts, mosses and ferns the organs of reproduction 
can usually be easily studied by beginners if material is preserved at 
the proper stages in advance, or it may be grown as wanted. In the 
higher plants the study of the reproductive organs is attended with dif- 
ficulty. Here and in other difficult topics the studies should be supple- 
mented by demonstrations on the part of the teacher, and by collateral 
reading. 

Stud}' the special morphology of the higher plants by a careful ex- 
amination of types in the families of angiosperms. The following are 
suggested, — ranunculaceae, cruciferae, leguminosae, rosaceae, umbellif- 
erae, compositae, labiatae, cupuliferae, salicaceae, liliaceae, araceae, 
cyperaceae, geraniaceae, orchidaceae. 

As a part of the examination, careful notes and drawings must be 
presented as evidence that the work on the several topics outlined above 
has been faithfully and successfully accomplished. Those who wish to 
prepare an herbarium in addition, may present the same as partial evi- 
dence, but weight will be given to this only when the herbarium is pre- 
pared with a view of illustrating some definite problem either of relation- 
ship or of ecological study, as plant distribution in relation to soil, 
topography of the country, plant formations, etc. 

Geology : To meet the requirement in geology it will be necessary- to 
devote at least five periods a week for one year to the study. Of this time 
not less than two periods a week must be given to laboratory and field work. 
The text -book used should cover the ground treated in such books as 
Scott's "Introduction to Geology," Geike's "Class Book of Geology" and 
Tarr's "Elementary Geology ;" but in addition to the subjects included 
in these books the student will be expected to do collateral reading in 
such works of reference as Geike's "Text-book of Geology," Dana's 
"Manual of Geology," Lyell's "Principles of Geolog}'" and LeConte's 
"Elements of Geology." It would also be well to refer to books on spe- 
cific subjects, such as Dana's "Characteristics of Volcanoes," Dana's 
"Corals and Coral Islands," Russell's "Volcanoes," Russell's "Lakes," 
Wright's "Ice Age in North America," Russell's "Glaciers," etc. The 
examination will test not merely the knowledge upon the text-book 
itself, but also the range and thoroughness of the work done with refer- 
ence books. Carefully written digests of the parts read in the reference 
books, if certified by the teacher, may be offered in evidence of the 
amount of work done with them. 

Much stress will be placed upon that part of the examination testing 
the laborator}- and field work. This will consist in part of the notes 
upon that work, certified by the teacher. This laboratory and field 
Avork should in large measure be made a study of the home geolog}- ; 
and evidence of good work in this connection will be necessary in order 
to pass the subject. 



l8 NEIV YORK STATE I'ETERINARY COLLEGE 

In the laboratory the common minerals and rocks should be studied 
so that the pupil may identify them ^vithout difficulty. Photographs of 
geological phenomena should also be studied, and training be given in 
the interpretation of geological maps. An elementary knowledge of 
paleontology should be obtained by the study of some of the common 
fossils ; and if the school is situated in a fossiliferous region, field work in 
stratigraphic geology should be included, together with the collection of 
fossils and their identification in the laboratory. Some hints concerning 
the nature of the work expected in the laboratory and the field may be 
gained from Tarr's "Suggestions for Laboratory and Field Work in 
High School Geology." 

Zoology : The examination in zoology will consist of two parts as 
follows : 

I. Invertebrate Zoology : The candidate must have devoted the 
equivalent of five periods a week for at least one half 3^ear to the study of 
invertebrate zoology ; and the greater part of this work must have been 
laboratory practice in the observation of living forms and in dissection. 
His laboratory notes and drawings endorsed b}^ the teacher will be required 
at the time of the examination as evidence of the nature of this part of 
the work. This laboratory practice should include a study of at least 
thirteen of the forms named in the following list : amoeba, paramoecium, 
hydra, sea-anemone, star-fish, sea-urchin, earthworm, cray-fish, lobster, 
spider, millipede, centipede, locust (grasshopper), dragon-fly, squash-bug, 
butterfly, bumblebee, clam, snail, and squid. 

The laboratory work must be of the character given in Xeedham's- 
"Elementar}' Lessons in Zoology," Colton's "Practical Zoology," or other 
works similar to these in grade and method. In addition to the above 
books, the student should have access to some advanced work like Parker 
and Haswell's "Text-book of Zoology," for reference. 

The examination will call for a discussion of the habitat, mode of 
life, and post-embryonic development (transformations) as well as of the 
morphology of the forms studied. 

II. / \'rtebrate Zoology : To meet the requirement there should 
be submitted drawings and notes in evidence of the dissection of the 

viscera of forms representing groups as follows : — Mammals (cat, dog, 
monkey, rabbit, rat or opossum) ; Birds (common fowl, pigeon, or other 
convenient form) ; Reptile (serpent, and either a turtle or an alligator) ; 
Batrachian (salamander, toad or frog, and a tadpole) ; "Fishes" (stur- 
geon, amia or gar ; cat-fish, sucker, carp or other soft rayed fish ; bass, 
perch or other spiny rayed fish ; shark or ray ; lamprey or hag ; 
lancelet (amphioxus), and a simple tunicate, i. e., boltenia or molgula). 
Particular attention should be paid to the brain, the heart and the 
respiratory apparatus. The muscles of the arm and leg should be dis- 
sected upon a mammal, a bird, and a reptile, and the differences pointed 
out. There must be prepared a skeleton (which need not be mounted) of 



NE IV ) 'ORk' STA TE I 'E TERINA R ) ' COL A EGE 1 9 

51 mammal, bird or fish ; and skulls of at least five other vertebrates. 
( In preparing these skulls remember that the hyoid goes with the skull ). 
The skulls, with proper labels, must be submitted at the examination. 

Two mammals should be compared in respect to their habits, food, 
mode of locomotion, etc.; likewise two birds, two reptiles, two batrach- 
ians, and two "fish." 

Besides the practical work above indicated, the student must gain 
from lectures or from text-books designed for high schools or colleges 
(e. g.. Parker & Haswell's "Text-book of Zoology," 1897), a com- 
prehensive knowledge of the members of the classes or groups rep- 
resented by the forms studied as described above. This knowledge must 
include their geographical distribution, habits and relation to human be- 
ings, whether beneficial or injurious, directly or indirectly ; the relations 
of the 3^oung to the parent in respect to oviparity and viviparity and the 
exceptions to the general rules ; the form and structure of the red blood 
corpuscles and the exceptions to the general rules. In case some point 
of information in your note-book is derived from a text-book or a 
cyclopaedia, give an exact reference to the source of the information. 

Admission to Advanced Standing. — Applicants for admission to 
advanced standing as members of the 2d or 3d year class must present the 
necessary educational qualifications for admission to the first year class 
(see p. 8) and must pass a satisfactory examination in all the work 
gone over, or offer satisfactory certificates of the completion of such work 
in other veterinary schools whose entrance requirements and courses of 
study are equivalent to those of this college. No person will be admitted 
to any advanced class except at the beginning of the college year in 
September. 

Applicants for advanced standing from other veterinary colleges must 
send or present letters of honorable dismissal, and furnish the Director, 
Dr. James Law, with a catalog containing the courses of instruction in 
the institution from which the}^ come with a duly certified statement of 
the studies pursued and their proficiency therein, and also a statement of 
the entrance requirements with the rank gained. To avoid delay these 
credentials should be forwarded at an early date in order that the status 
of applicants may be determined and information furnished concerning 
the class to which they are likely to be admitted. 

Graduates of veterinary colleges whose requirements for graduation 
are not equal to those of the New York State Veterinary College may be 
admitted provisionally upon such terms as the faculty may deem equita- 
ble in each case, regard being had to the applicant's previous course of 
study and attainments. In this connection, attention is called to the legal 
requirements of academic and professional education for the practice of 
Veterinarj^ Medicine in the State of New York. (See pp. 8, 41, and 
Appendix B ) . 



20 AE W YORK' S TATE I E TERINA R ) ' COL L EGE 

Admission to Graduatk Work. — The ample facilities for graduate 
work in tlie New York State Veterinary College, with allied departments 
in Cornell University, are open to graduates of this institution and of 
other Veterinary Colleges whose entrance requirements and undergradu- 
ate courses are equivalent. (See pp. 8, 20). 

RESIDENCE AND REGISTRATION. 

Residence in Ithaca is required of all students. For leave of absence 
during term time application should be made to the Director, Profes.sor 
Law. 

Registration — At the beginning of each term ( see calendar for exact 
da}- and date) the student must register with the University Registrar^ 
Room 9 A, Morrill Hall. After registering wnth the University Registrar, 
he must, on the same day, register with the Secretary of the Faculty, Dr. 
F'i.sh, Room 11, 2d floor, of the Veterinary College. 

REQUIREMENTS FOR GRADUATION. 

In order to receive the degree of Doctor of Veterinary Medicine 
(D.V.M. ) the candidate must satisfy all the entrance requirements (pp. 
8-9) and successfully pursue the courses named in the schedule of 
studies given below. 

The thesis required in the last year (see schedule) is designed to 
give the student opportunit}- to investigate some subject in which he has- 
become particularly interested, and to give him training in presenting 
the results of the investigation in proper literar}' form. 

A final examination upon all subjects pursued during the entire 
course will be given during the last week of the third term to all candi- 
dates for degrees. (In 1898-99 this examination will occur Tuesday and 
Wednesday, June 6, 7, 1898). 

SCHEDULE OF THE COURSES LEADING TO THE DEGREE 
OF DOCTOR OF VETERINARY MEDICINE. ^=- 

Fiist Year. ist Term. 2d Term. 3d Term. 

Inorganic Chemistrv 

3. T. orTh., 12 3. T. orTh., 12 3. T. or Th., 12 

Anatomy 

2. T., Th., 9 2. T.,Th.,9 2. T., Th., 9 

Dissection 

4. 4. 4. 

Microscopy and Histology 

2. M., W., 8 -1 — - 2. M., W., 8 - 

Laboratory 

3. 3. 

Embryology 



3. M., W., F. 



lyEboratory 



Comparatiye Pliysiology 

1. F", 10 I. F., 10 I. F., ID. 

Hreeds and Breeding 

2. M., W., 12- 2. M., W.. 12 2. M., W. 



NBiy YORK STATE I'ETERINARY COLLEGE 



21 



Second Year. ist Term. 2d Term. 


3d Term. 


Organic and Phj'siological Chemistry 

2 2 


2 


Anatomv 

I. \V.,9 I. \V..9 


I. \V.,9 


Dissection 








Comparative Physiology 

I. W., 10 - I. W., 10 --- 




Laboratory 




Pharmacology 

I. M., iO-_ - _- . I. M., 10 _ 


I. M., 10 


Pharmacy 




Therapeutics 


I. W., 10. 


Medicine 

3. M., W., F., 8 3. M , W., F., 8 


3. M., W., F.,8 


Surgery 

5. M.,T.,W.,Th., F.,ii__ 3. M., W., F., 11 


_ 


Obstetrics 

- 2. T.. Th., II 


4. T., W., Th., F., II .- 


Jurisprudence 


I. M., II- 


Sanitary Science or Parasitism 

2. T., Th.. 8 2. T., Th.,8 


2. T., Th., 8 


Bacteriolog>- 

"i. M., 9 I. M., 9 


I. M., 9 


Laboratory 




2. 2. .._ 


2. - 


Clinics, medicine and surgerj^ 




3. 3. 


3. 


Third Year. ist Term. 2d Term. 


3d Term. 


Medicine 

3. M., W., F., 8 3. M., W., F., 8 


3. M., W., F., 8 


Clinics, medicine and surgery 

6, 6. 


6. 


Surgery 

5. M., T.,W., Th.. F., II- 3. M., W., F., 11 


5. M., T., W.,Th.,F., II 


Zootechnics 

2. _-T.. Th., II 




Toxicology 

- 2 _. 




Parasitism or Sanitary Science 

2. T., Th. 8 2. T., Th., 8 


2. T., Th., 8 


Pathology 

2. T.. Th., 9 I. T.. 9 

Laboratory 






Meat Inspection 


i.T.,9 


Laboratory 


I 


Research and Thesis 




3. 3. 


3. 



*If the hours for lectures, etc., are not given in the schedule, the time will be 
arranged with the cla.ss. 



DEPARTMENTS, METHODS AND 
FACILITIES. 



In addition to the departments of the Veterinary College proper ; the 
resources of the entire I'niversity are practically at the disposal of the 
college by the action of the board of trustees at the time when authoriza- 
tion was given for its location on the campus of the Cornell University 
(p. 5, under foundation). Among the facilities of the university 
of especial value to the veterinar}- college may be mentioned the 
museums of Vertebrate and Invertebrate Zoology including Entomology, 
of Agriculture, of Botany and of Geology. The Magnificent University 
Lil)rary, with its 200,000 bound volumes, 34,000 pamphlets and 600 cur- 
rent periodicals and transactions, is likewise as freely open to veteri- 
nary college students as to other university students (see also Veter- 
inary Library, p. 37). 

The Departments, with their special equipment facilities and methods, 
are given in the order in which the subjects are pursued in the course. 

The Courses Required for Graduation are given in the schedule of 
studies, p 21, but the additional courses offered bj- the various depart- 
ments are thought to be of especial value to veterinary students and may 
l)e elected by them whenever the}- have satisfied the requirements. 

In all laboratory Courses and clinics two and one-half (2,'^) actual 
hours of laboratory practice are required for each hour of credit ; e. g., 
for a three hour laboratory course, 7,12 actual hours of laboratory work 
are required each week. 

CHEMISTRV. 

The instruction in chemistry is given in the university chemical 
building, Morse Hall (plate \'II). This building is used solely for chem- 
istry and is fully equipped with modern apparatus and material. The 
laboratories furnish the most ample accommodation for practical work, 
and the lectures are fully illustrated by specimens, demonstrations and 
lantern views. The chemical library, in the building and accessible to 
students, contains complete sets of all important journals, and is very 
fully supplied with works of reference and standard books on chemistry 
and allied subjects. 

For a full account of the department with its 39 courses, one may 
consult the University Register or the special announcement of the 
chemical department (see 3d page of cover). 



XEW YORK STAIE I'ETERINAKY COLLEGE 23 

COrRSES. 

These are the courses pursued by veterinary students and must be 
taken in the order here indicated. 

I. Elementary, general inorganic chemistry. Three hours weekly 
throughout the year. This consists of one lecture (T. or Th. 12), one 
recitation and one hour of laborator}- work. Professors Cai^dwei^L and 
Trevor and Instructor KortrighT. 

20. Organic chemistrj'. Fall term. Two hours. (Time to be ar- 
ranged with the class). Professor Orndorff. 

45. Physiological chemistr3^ Winter and spring terms. Two hours. 
(Time to be arranged with the class). Professor Orndorff. 

ANATOMY. 

The instruction in anatomy is by lectures, recitations and laboratory 
work, the latter being by far the most important. The objects of the 
lectures are to present facts of general morphology as related to the horse 
and other domestic animals ; to direct attention, as far as possible, to the 
correlation of structure and function of the various organs of the body 
and to emphasize the anatomical relations of those parts most subject to 
surgical operations. The main reliance, however, is placed upon the 
work done in the laboratory. Thorough practical knowledge of anatomy 
can be acquired in no other way, and every student will be required to 
dissect all the parts of the horse, or ox, and such other of the domestic 
animals as may prove most expedient, before taking his final examinations. 

The courses in anatomy extend through two years. The first year is 
devoted to the study of the bones, joints, muscles and certain of the vis- 
cera ; the second year, to the vascular and nervous systems and the 
organs of special sense. 

In the study of the osseous and muscular systems, the skeletons in 
the laboratory, and the Auzoux models afford valuable assistance. In 
the museum there are accumulating series of specimens which illustrate, 
in a typical manner, some of the more important anatomical features of 
the various domestic animals. 

The department of anatomy occupies the whole of the east wing — a 
structure 90 feet by 40 feet and one story in height (Plate I). The floors 
are of impermeable cement ; the walls are lined by enameled white 
brick and the ceilings covered with sheet steel. The main laboratory is 
54 feet by 40 and 22 feet in height. It is well lighted by skylights and 
by electricity. It is heated by steam and hot air. The ventilation is 
nearly perfect, fresh air being forced into the room by large fans situated 
in the basement. The entire volume of air in the laboratory can be 
changed every 5 minutes without creating any perceptible draft. This 
constant supply of abundance of pure air is an especially important 
feature in a dissecting room. The laboratory is supplied with mounted 
skeletons and other osteological material, a large refrigerator, set of 



24 NEW YORK STATE \ETER I NARY COLLEC; E 

Fairbanks scales, weighing either kilograms or pounds, injecting and 
other laborator}- apparatus. 

In addition to the general libraries of the University and of the college, 
(p. 37) there are upon the book shelves, in the laboratory, dictionaries, 
both English and medical, a complete set of the Reference Handbook of 
the Medical Sciences, standard text-books of anatomy, physiology, 
physics, etc., for the special use of the students in the laboratory, as 
books of reference. 

Connected with the main laboratory is a similar one, 22 feet by 22, 
which is used as a preparation room and as a private laboratory ( Plate I). 

Opening into the laboratories is a locker room, containing lockers 
for the accommodation of 150 students, and off from this room are the 
lavatories, etc. (Plate I). 

The city and surrounding country furnish any quantity of anatom- 
ical material, and in almost endless variety ; horse, ox, sheep and swine, 
dog, cat, rabbit and guinea-pig, both adult and in all stages of fetal 
development. 

The facilities for the study of anatomy are limited only by lack of 
preparation and time, on the part of the student. 

After finishing the required work, students are encouraged to under- 
take some piece of original work, in either comparative or surgical 
anatomy. 

COURSES. 

Of the following courses, the two first are required of the veterinary 
students ; the others are general courses : 

1. General and descriptive veterinary anatomy, l-'all, winter and 
spring. Six hours. Two lectures and laborator}- work. T., Th., 9 Dr. 
Hopkins and demonstrators. 

2. Descriptive veterinary anatomy. Fall, winter and .spring. Five 
hours. One lecture and laboratory work. W., 9. Dr. Hopkins and 
demonstrators. 

This course nmst be preceded by course i. 

3. Anatomical methods and gross anatom3\ Fall term. Three 
hours. One lecture and laboratory w^ork. S. 12. Dr. Hopkins. 

4. Advanced anatomy. Winter term. Three hours. One lecture 
and laboratory work. S., 12. Dr. Hopkins. 

Course 4 must be preceded by course 3 or its equivalent. 

5. Human anatomy. Laboratory work throughout the year. Di . 
Hopkins. 

This course is open to tho.se who have had one or more of the preceding 
courses. 

6. Re.search and thesis. Three hours throughout the year. Dr. 
Hopkins. 



NE IV ) YM'A' .V TA TE VE TERIXA RY C X)L L EGE 2 5 

CO.MPARATI VE PHYSIOLOGY. 

It is the aim of this department to select from a wide field of inter- 
esting topics, those which will be of greatest use to the student, in 
preparation for a more complete understanding of normal functions, as 
distinguished from the pathological changes so frec|uently encountered 
in the practice of human and veterinary medicine. 

The fact that it is essential to know the natural before undertaking 
the diagnosis of unnatural conditions is thoroughly emphasized. 

The lectures are supplemented as fully as possible by diagrams, pre- 
parations and experiments. 

In additon to the didactic instruction a course in the laboratory is 
provided, which is intended to supplement and extend the lecture courses. 
The laboratory of comparative physiology is located, for the present, 
upon the second floor of the main building ( Plate II). It is well lighted 
and equipped with necessary reagents and apparatus, additions to which 
are made as needed. Students are rendered every assistance in the com- 
prehension of the fundamental parts of their work without, however, 
losing sight of the fact that careful observation and self-interpretation 
are most essential for a proper scientific training. Ever}^ encouragement 
is offered, to those properly fitted, to pursue their work beyond that 
given in the regular course. As a part of the equipment may be men- 
tioned a kymograph, sphygmograph, induction coil and various bat- 
teries, a centrifuge and other apparatus for urinalysis. 

To those intending to be teachers, as well as those contemplating the 
study of human or veterinary medicine, the course will be especially 
useful as it deals with experiments on the functional changes going on 
in the human and animal body, the exposition of which, is none the 
less important because, in many cases, of an elementary nature. 

COURSES. 

1. Required of the first yeaf veterinary students, and treats of the 
digestive functions, circulation, respiration, and excretion. The work 
given in this course precedes quite logically that of Pharmacology and 
Therapeutics. Lectures, one hour each week through the year. F., 10. 
Dr, Fish. 

2. The functions of the muscular and nervous systems and repro- 
duction are considered in this course, which is a direct continuation of 
course one. Lectures one hour each week through the fall and winter 
terms. W., 10. Dr. Fish. 

3. Practical work in the laboratory. A large proportion of the work 
is devoted to the digestive system. Artificial digestive juices are tested 
upon the various kinds of foods by the student and careful notes kept of 
the various processes. Those who can devote more than the required 
time are taught how to make the various digestive extracts. A course in 
urinalysis is also required in order that students may familiarize them- 



26 \/tU' YORK STATE I'ETER IN A RY COLLEGE 

selves with some of the more common but important changes occurring 
(hiring health and disease. Experiments in blood pressure and upon 
the muscular and nervous systems will be carried on as time and oppor- 
tunity permit. Fall term. Two hours. M., 2-5, \V., 2-4. Dr. Fish. 

4. Research and Thesis. Three hours throughout the year. Dr. 
Fish. 

MICROSCOPY, HISTOLOGY AND EMBRYOLOGY. 

As indicated by the following courses, this department offers ele- 
mentary and advanced instruction in the theory and use of the micro- 
scope and its accessories, in photo -micrography, in vertebrate histology, 
and vertebrate embryology ; and opportunities for research in all of 
these subjects. 

The rooms for the use of this department are on the third floor, and 
as shown by the plan (Plates III, V),they are ample and almost per- 
fectly lighted. They consist of a large general laboratory, a research 
laboratory and the private laboratory of the professor in charge where 
special demonstrations of difficult subjects are given to small groups of 
students. 

The material equipment consists of a good supply of modern micro- 
scopes each one of which is fitted with a low and medium power dry 
objective and a 2 mm. homogeneous immersion objective. Camera 
lucidas, polariscopes, micro-spectroscopes, photo-micrographic cameras, 
and other special apparatus are in sufficient numbers to give each student 
opportunity for personally learning to use them, and for applying them 
to any special study in which they are called for. The general and 
research laboratories are large, and are equipped with microtomes, incu- 
bators, aquariums, etc. The collection of histologic and embryologic 
specimens is extensive and constantly increasing. Full sets of typical 
specimens are available for study and comparison by the students. 

The aim of the department is to bring the student into direct con- 
tact with the truths of nature, and hence, while there are lectures to 
give broad and general views, there is a large amount of laboratorj- work 
in which the facts are learned at first hand, and the methods and manip- 
ulations necessary for acquiring the facts are practiced by each student. 
It is recognized that less ground can be covered in a given time in this 
way, but it is believed, and experience has confirmed the belief, that the 
intellectual independence and the power to acquire knowledge direct 
from nature which is gained by this personal work, is of far higher value 
than the facts and theories that might be learned in the same time from 
books and lectures alone, or from specimens prepared by some other 
individual. 

This lake region with its rich and varied fauna is especially favorable 
for investigations in the histology and embryology of all the main groups 
of vertebrates and the proximity of the abattoirs in the city makes it 
possible to obtain abundant material for the study of the development of 



NEJV YORK STATE VETERINARY COLLEGE 27 

the sheep, cow and pig. The college clinic and the department of anatomy 
supply an abundance of material for the embryology of the cat and dog 
so that the opportunities for research upon the development of the 
domestic animals are excellent. Every encouragement is given for the 
fullest utilization of these opportunities by students in the preparation of 
theses and for special investigations. 

COURSES. 

1 . The Microscope and Microscopical Methods. First half of fall term. 
Two hours. Two lectures and three hours of laboratory work. This course 
forms the basis for all the subsequent work given by the department. It 
is also designed to give a knowledge of the theory and use of the micro- 
scope and its accessories which would be advantageous for the work of 
any department where the microscope is employed. M., W., 8. Pro- 
fessor Gage and Instructor Kingsbury. 

This course counts for two hours for the term, although the work 
must all be done in the first five weeks. 

2. Vetebrate Histology. Last half of fall term (3 hours) and the 
winter term (5 hours). Eight hours. Two lectures and three hours 
laboratory work. In this course are given the elements of the fine anat- 
omy of the domestic animals and of man. It includes also methods of 
histological investigation and demonstration. M., W., 8, Professor Gage 
and Instructor Kingsbury. 

This is a continuation of course i and is open only to those who 
have taken course i, and have taken or are taking courses in anatomy 
and physiology. 

3. Vertebrate Embr3'ology. Spring term. Five hours. Three 
lectures and two hours of laboratory work. This course deals with the 
elements and methods of embryology in man, the domestic animals and 
the amphibia. M., W., F., 8. Professor Gage and Instructor Kingsbury. 

Course 3 is open only to those who have pursued courses i and 2. 
(The lectures alone may be attended by those who have taken courses i 
and 2 in Physiology and Vertebrate Zoology j. 

4. Research in Histology and Embryology. Laboratory work with 
Seminary throughout the year. This course is designed for those pre- 
paring theses for the baccalaureate or advanced degrees and for those 
wishing to undertake special investigations in histology and embryology. 
Professor Gage and Instructor Kingsbury. 

Course 4 is open only to those who have taken courses r, 2 and 3, or 
their equivalent in some other University. Drawing (course 9, in 
Mechanical Engineering, or its equivalent) and a reading knowledge of 
French and German are indispensable for the most successful work in 
this course. 

Subjects for baccalaureate theses should be decided upon if possible 
during the spring term of the junior year so that material in suitable 
stages of development and physiologic activity may be prepared. 



28 XE W ) '( )k'k' ST A TE I 'E TEREWl R ) ' COL L EC E 

5. Structure and Physiology of the Cell. Spring term. Two hours. 
Laboratory work with lectures. This course is designed for advanced 
students who wi.sh to investigate cytologic problems. Dr. Kingsbury. 

6. Advanced INIicroscopy. Spring Term. Two hours. Laboratory- 
work with lectures. In this course special instruction will be given in 
the theory and use of the more difficult and important accessories of the 
microscope, e.g.. the micro-spectroscope, the micro-polariscope. the 
apertometer," the photo-micrographic camera and the ])rojection micro- 
scope. Professor Gage. 

This course is open only to those who have taken course i, and if 
photo-micrography is desired, an elementary knowledge of photography 
like that given in course 9, Department of Physics, is ncecessary. 

7. Seminary. There will be a meeting of the department staff and 
students engaged in research, once in two weeks, for conference and 
report upon special investigations. (See Veterinar}' College Seminary, 

p. 38). 

Note — For the work of this department, the student will find a 
knowledge of Latin and Greek of the greatest advantage. A year's study 
of Latin, three to five recitations per week, and of Greek, Goodell's 
Greek in English, or Coy's Greek for beginners, would represent the 
minimum amount needed. For all courses, the ability to draw^ well free 
hand, and a good reading knowledge of French and German are desira- 
])le, and for research work almost indispensable. 

THE COLLEGE OF AGRICULTURE— BREEDS AND BREEDING. 

The College of Agriculture comprises the Departments of General 
Agriculture ; Animal Industry and Dairy Husbandry (Plate \'III.); Hor- 
ticulture and Pomology ; Agricultural Chemistry ; General and Economic 
Entomology and the Agricultural Experiment Station. 

The University grounds consist of 270 acres of land, bounded on the 
north and south by Fall Creek Ravine and Cascadilla gorge respectively. 
One hundred and twent^'-five acres of the arable land are devoted to the 
use of the Agricultural Department. This part of the domain is man- 
aged with a view not only to profit, but also to illustrate the best methods 
of general agriculture. A four years' rotation is practiced on the princi- 
pal fields ; one year of clover, one of corn, one of oats or l)arley, and one 
of wheat. A dairy of twenty cows, a flock of sheep, some fifteen horses 
and colts, and other livestock are kept upon the farm. Nearly all of 
these animals are grades, bred and reared with the single view of giving 
object lessons which can be practiced with profit by the students on their 
return to their homes. A four story barn provides for housing all the 
animals, machinery, tools, hay, grain, and manures. The stationary 
thresher, feed-cutter, chaffer, and other machinery are driven by steam 
power. The barn also furnishes many facilities for carrying on investi- 
gations in feeding and rearing all classes of domestic animals. 



NEW )ORk' STATE VETERINARY COLLEGE 29 

The barn is also furnished with a well equipped piggery and tool 
house. Not far from the main ham have been constructed four buildings 
with suitable yards and appliances for incubating and rearing domestic 
fowls. 

The agricultural class roon) is provided with a collection of grains 
and grasses, implements of horse and hand culture, and various appli- 
ances for carr\-ing on instruction and conducting investigations. The 
whole plant is managed with a view to the greatest economy consistent 
with the greatest efficiency in imparting instruction. 

COURSES. 

The courses in the college attended by veterinary students are given 
by the department of Agriculture proper and are as follows : 

3 (in part). The horse, breeds and breeding, feeding, education, 
care and driving. Fall term. Two hours. M. W. 12. Professor 
Roberts. 

10. Animal Industry. Principles of breeding, history and develop- 
ment, improvement and creation of dair}- and beef breeds of cattle 
(Plate VIII); principles of feeding, care, selection and management of 
dair}- and beef cattle. Winter and spring terms. Two.hours. Practice, 
one hour by appointment, for those electing it. M. W. 12. Assistant 
Professor Wing. 

PHARMACOLOGY. 

(Plate II.) 

The term is employed in its comprehensive meaning to include not 
only the materials of medicine, but their preparation, use and physiolog- 
ical action. Allowing for certain exceptional differences, there is, in 
general, a great resemblance in the action of drugs in the lower animals 
and human beings. The efficiency of new drugs is commonl}- tested 
upon the lower forms before being applied to man. For a broad and 
enlightened human practice a medical course dealing with the treatment 
of lower animals offers a most advantageous preparation. 

The more important drugs and preparations as given in the U. S. 
Pharmacopoeia are studied, including the new^ ones which appear from 
time to time. 

The clinics furnish abundant material for the use of medicines and 
the study of their actions. 

The physiological changes in certain tissues resulting from the toxic 
doses of many drugs are as yet unknown, and opportunities for research 
are abundant in this field. 

courses. 

I. The Materials of Medicine. A study of the uses and actions of 
the various drugs and their preparation. A varied collection of the crude 
drugs is available and examined at the recitations. The course is con- 



30 NEW YORK STATE VETERINARY COLLEGE 

ducted in the form of lectures and frequent examinations. One hour each 
week throughout the year. M,, lo. Dr. Fish. 

2. Pharmacy. Each student is required to make tho.se preparations- 
which are most commonly used in practice ; tinctures, fluid extracts, 
balls, powders, ointments, etc. In addition to this each student will 
have practical experience in writing and compounding prescriptions. 
The importance of a discriminating and accurate system for dispensing 
medicines is kept well in mind. Two hours per week. Winter term. 
M., 2-5, W., 2-4. Dr. Fish. 

3. Therapeutics. The treatment and cure of disease. This subject, 
standing along with pathology, unites physiology, anatomy, chemistry, 
and botany with medicine and surgery. It is therefore desirable to have 
some knowledge of these branches in order to obtain a full appreciation 
of the means employed in the restoration of health. Lectures one hour 
each week. Spring term. W. , 10. Dr. Fish. 

This course must be preceded by the first year course in physiology, 
or its equivalent. 

4. Research and Thesis. Three hours throughout the year. Dr. 
Fish. 

VETERINARY *MEDICINE ; ZYMOTIC DISEASES, VETERINARY 
SANITARY SCIENCE ; PARASITES AND PARASITISM. 

The course in Veterinary Medicine deals with the purel}- medical 
diseases of the different genera of domestic animals, — including the 
various constitutional, dietetic and toxic affections and the maladies of 
the different systems of organs — digestive, respiratory, circulatory, urinary . 
cutaneous, nervous and visual. The lectures and recitations extend over 
the two last years of undergraduate study. They are illustrated by dia- 
grams, by dry and wet museum specimens and by subjects presented in 
the clinics. The special value of the course lies in its wide scope which 
includes equally all species, the aim being not to make students hippo- 
pathologists only, but zoopathologists or more definitely veterinary path- 
ologists. The site of the College between the city of Ithaca and a well 
stocked agricultural environment is well calculated to carry out this aim. 

In course 2 is treated the general subject of zymosis and contagion ; 
the microbiology of diseases ; the accessory causes such as special condi- 
tions of soil, culture, climate, season, weather, trade, migration, war, 
consumption of animal food, etc. ; the diagnosis of the different plagues, 
the various methods of control and suppression by the individual owner, 
the municipality, town, county, state, or nation ; and the exclusion of 
pestilences from a country. Each zymotic disease is made a special study, 
and its transmissibility to different genera of animals, from animals to 
man, and from man to aninfals together with the susceptibitity of each 
genus to inmiunization and the best known means of securing this receive 
due attention. Enzootic affections receive the same attention, and the 
necessary preventive measures in connection with soils, drainage, build- 



NE W ) ORK S TA TE VE TERINA RY COL L EGE 3 1 

ings, exposures, wells, ponds, marshes, factories and other local causes 
are fully dealt with. Illustrative diagrams, preserved specimens and, when 
■opportunity ofiFers, fresh subjects and specimens are employed for 
demonstration. 

In the course on parasites and parasitism, the zoological place of the 
parasite in nature, its life history in connection with the animal body and 
apart from it, the lesions and symptoms caused, the genera susceptible, 
and its diagnosis, destruction and prevention are fully considered. An 
extensive collection of the parasites of domestic animals is available for 
demonstration, and where these are lacking, diagrams and illustrations 
will be used. 

The medical clinic covering this whole field, and drawn from city and 
•country alike, furnishes the greatest possible variety as regards genus and 
species of patient, while the hospital and isolation wards furnish a supply 
of cases that can be watched from day to day. Individual cases are 
placed in charge of senior students wdio keep a record of symptoms and 
treatment. This record is open to the entire class so that all can profit 
equally by every case. Outpatients on the University farm and in the 
<:ity can also be availed of for clinical uses. 

COURSES. 

1. Veterinary Medicine : Principles and Practice. Fall, winter and 
spring. Three hours. M., W., F., 8. Professor Law. 

This course extends over two 3^ears. 

2. Contagious Diseases ; Veterinary Sanitary Science. Fall, winter 
and spring. Tw^o hours. T., Th., 8. Professor Law. 

[This course w411 be given to second and third year men in 1898-99. 
See the following] : 

3. Parasites and Parasitic Diseases. Fall, winter and spring. Two 
hours. T., Th., 8. Professor Law. 

[This course w411 be given to second and third year men in 1899-1900. 
See the preceding]. 

4. Clinical Veterinary Medicine ; second year men. Fall, winter 
and spring. Three hours. Professor Law. 

5. Clinical Veterinary Medicine ; third year men. Fall, winter and 
spring. Six hours. Professor Law. 

6. Research and Thesis. Three hours throughout the year. Professor 
Law. 

SURGERV, OBSTETRICS, ZOOTECHNICS AND 
JURISPRUDENCE. 

SURGERY. 

The instruction in Surgery is designed to equip the student with 
both theoretical and practical knowledge thorough in every respect. 

The class room work extends through the second and third years 
and consists of lectures, or of recitations supplemented by lectures. 



32 X/nV YORK STATE VETERINARY COLLEGE 

One term of fourteen weeks, five hours per week is given to General 
Surger}', including general surgical pathology, the infection of wounds, 
surgical therapeutics, aseptic and anti-septic treatment of wounds, the 
handling and restraint of animals. 

Special Surger}' extends over the remainder of the course, consider- 
ing in detail the surgical disease of the various parts of the body, their 
causes, nature, diagnosis and treatment, to which is added an extended 
course in castration and spaying. The facilities for the instruction are 
in keeping with the general aim and scope of the college. 

Abundant instruments and apparatus of both home and foreign pat- 
terns are provided for illustrating the lectures ; while the college 
museum contains abundant material which is freely used for exemplify- 
ing surgical pathology. 

The college becomes the possessor of the extensive pathological col- 
lection of the veterinary department of Cornell University, accumulated 
during nearly thirty years, to which have been added many valuable 
preparations contributed by veterinarians, and secured from the college 
clinics. 

The course in practical surgery extending through the second and 
third years is given in the college clinics. 

The location of Cornell University and the organization of the Vet- 
erinary College gives unusual opportunities for clinical instruction in the 
number and character of cases, the variety of species of animals and the 
availability of each case for purposes of instruction. 

As each member of the veterinary faculty is exclusively employed 
b}^ the college and is in no degree dependent upon private practice, 
all reasonable effort is exercised to lead owners of livestock to enter 
cases in the free clinics instead of diverting special cases to private 
practice. 

The college clinics being wholly free, regardless of the value of the 
animal, the severity of the proposed operation or the owner's abilit}^ or 
willingness to pay, obviates the usual disadvantages of free clinics where 
largely inferior animals the property of poor and frequently careless 
people are presented in a state of health and with general surroundings 
not propitious for testing the value of a line of treatment or of following 
it to a successful issue, failing consequently to impart the desired knowl- 
edge, interest or enthusiasm to the student ; while in our free clinics the 
student has to deal with animals of the same general character and value 
as those met with in ordinary veterinary practice. 

The thickly inhabited agricultural country about Ithaca furnishes an 
abundance of clinical material of all classes of disease not alone of horses 
and dogs but of every species of domesticated animals. 

Numerous cases, especially those for major surgical operations, are 
drawn from a radius of twenty-five miles thus placing a large and im- 
portant stock-producing area tributary to our clinics. 



NEW YORK STATE VETERINARY COLLEGE 33 

All patients are admitted subject to our discretion as to whether an 
operation shall l)e performed bj' a member of the staff or l)y a student, 
the general plan being for the professor in charge to perform a sufficient 
number of operations to illustrate methods in a given case, after which 
they are performed by students in turn, under immediate supervision, 
aiming in this way to thoroughly fit men to perform any desired opera- 
tion supported by that skill and confidence which actual work alone can 
give. 

Practical Surgery is required of all second and third year students, 
the course extending through both years. 

The second year student devotes three hours per week to clinics 
throughout the year, during which period he is required to keep in order 
and sterilize operating instruments, apply dressings to wounds, prepare 
and apply plaster of Paris and other fixation bandages to various parts, 
and to perform such surgical operations as opening abscesses, excising 
simple tumors and controlling the consequent hemorrhage, castration 
and spaying of dogs and cats, castration of normal horses, rasping, cut- 
ting and extracting irregular teeth and other operations of a similar 
grade. 

The third year student devotes six hours a week throughout the year 
to clinics, repeats and perfects himself in the operations of the second 
year, makes examinations and diagnoses, administers chloroform to the 
larger animals and personally performs the major surgical operations, 
such as the removal of extensive tumors, the more difficult cases of dental 
surgery, ovariotomy in mares and cows, arytenectomy, tenotomy and 
other operations of a similar class. This work is carefully graded and 
the student advanced as rapidly from the simpler to the more difficult 
operations as is consistent. While the cadaver is used as needed for 
demonstrating surgical anatomy and procedure it is the policy of the 
department to require the student to perform the operations upon living 
animals of commercial value and for curative purposes. 

Each student must acquire practical and experimental knowledge of 
surgery parallel to his theoretical training in the class room and is 
required to demonstrate his ability in the operating theatre. 

All patients upon which important operations are performed are 
detained in the surgical ward until the crisis of the operation has been 
passed, and the student operating is required to follow his work and is 
held personally responsible for the proper after treatment of his patient. 

All needed instruments and appliances for instruction in practical 
surgery are provided, while the surgical ward and operating room else- 
where described are commodious and perfect in every appointment. The 
most modern appliances for securing and controlling animals such as 
operating tables, stocks and casting apparatus are fully provided 
(Plate VI j. 

Special investigations in relation to surgical diagnosis, pathology 
and treatment are constantly being carried on, the material for such 



34 NE W YORK S TA TE VE TERINA R ) ' COL LEGE 

work being abundant. Special apparatus for investigations is supplied 
as needed, and advanced students are called upon to actively assist in 
the various investigations, l)econnng not only more familiar with surgi- 
cal manipulations but inspired to study methodically and effectively the 
many questions in surgical pathology and therapeutics, and thus become 
better prepared to cope promptly and properly with the many atypical 
cases constantly occurring in general practice. 

OBSTETRICS. 

A thorough course of obstetrics is given during the second j'ear, 
consisting chiefly of lectures including two hours per week during the 
winter term and four hours per w eek in the «pring term. 

The course is preceded by an extended study of embryology during 
the first year which serv^es as a foundation for the proper consideration of 
the subject. Obstetric anatomy and physiology have also been in a 
measure mastered during the first year in the departments of anatomy 
and physiology ; all three are then reviewed with special reference to 
obstetrics, teratology, and diseases of new-born animals. 

The lectures are based in arrangement on Fleming's obstetrics sup- 
plemented by personal experience. Models and valuable museum prepa- 
rations are used for illustration. While our location permits of the 
securing of much valuable clinical material, such obstetric cases as can 
not be brought to the college clinic are attended at the owner's premises 
by the class, under the personal direction of the professor in charge ; 
the students are in this way brought into actual contact with a class of 
cases the proper handling of which can not otherwise be effectively 
taught. 

ZOOTECHNICS. 

The subject of Zootechnics is chiefly taught in the College of Agri- 
culture of Cornell University, covering the various breeds of domestic 
animals, the methods of breeding and handling. 

Supplementary to this instruction a course of lectures covering one 
term two hours a week will be given dealing especially with the breed- 
ing, care and management of animals in relation to disease, hereditary 
diseases and vices and a general resume of the subject of breeding as re- 
lated to veterinary science. 

JURISPRUDENCE. 

A course of two lectures a week is given during the winter term of 
the second year, dealing with the general responsibilities of veterinarians 
to the public, to stock owners and professional colleagues ; methods of 
making and recording examinations for soundness, and a special study of 
physical diagnosis and prognosis as related to this subject. 

Practice is given from time to time in the work at the clinics. 



XEH' VORf: ST.ITE rKTERfXARV COLLEGE 35 

COIRSKS. 

Students are not admitted to the third year in vSurgery unless they 
have completed courses i and 2 in physiology, anatomy and histology. 

1. General Veterinary Surgery. Fall term. Five hours. M., T. , 
W. , Th. , F. , II. Professor Williams. 

Course i is open only to those who have completed courses i and 2 
in histolog}' and course i in physiology. 

2. Special Surgery (head and neck). Winter. Three hours. M., 
W^, F., II. Professor WiLtiAMS. 

Course 2 is open only to those students who have completed course i 
in anatomy, physiology and histology. 

3. Veterinary Obstetrics. Winter. Two hours. T. ,Th., ir. Pro- 
fessor Williams. 

Courses 3 and 4 must be preceded by course 3 in embryology. 

4. Veterinary Obstetrics. Spring. Four hours. T. , W. , Th., F. , 
II. Professor Williams. 

5. Veterinary Jurisprudence. Spring. One hour. M., 11. Pro- 
fessor Williams. 

[Courses 1-5 will be given to second and third year men in 1898-99. 
See under Course 11.] 

6. Clinical Veterinary Surgery ; second year men. Fall, winter and 
spring. Three hours. Professor Williams. 

7. Clinical Veterinary Surgery ; third year men. Fall, winter and 
spring. Six hours. Professor W' illiams. 

8. Special Surgery (chest, abdomen and anterior limbs). Fall. 
Five hours. M., T., W., Th., F., ir. Professor Williams. 

9. Special Surgery (posterior limbs, skin). Winter. M. ,W.,F. , 
II. Three hours. Professor Williams. 

10. Zootechnics. Winter. Two hours. T., Th., 11. Professor 
Williams. 

11. Special Surgery (genito-urinar}^ organs, castration). Spring. 
Five hours. M., T., W., Th., F., 11. Professor Williams. 

[Courses 8-1 1 will be given to second and third year men in 1899- 
1900. See under Course 5]. 

12. Research and Thesis. Three hours throughout the year. Pro- 
fessor Williams. 

COMPARATIVE PATHOLOGY, BACTERIOIvOGY AND 
MEAT INSPECTION. 

The instruction in pathology and bacteriology is given by means of 
lectures, recitations and laboratory work. In general pathology the 
students are drilled in the definitions and in the nature of the morbid 
changes included in this subject. In general pathology Ziegler's text book 
is followed but supplemented by the results of more recent investi- 
gations as they are found in current literature and special monographs. 



36 ,VEIV YORK STATE VETERINARY COLLEGE 

Pathological histology will receive special attention. In this work the 
students will be taught, by actual laboratory work, the methods of pre- 
paring permanent preparations and of examining diseased tissues in 
the fresh condition. They will have the privilege of .studying blood 
and of counting the red and white corpu.scles. For this highly important 
work the laboratory is especially well equipped. For the general arrange- 
ment of the laboratory see Plates III and IV. 

The fall term in bacteriology is devoted to methods. The laboratories 
are well supplied with the best modern apparatus. The students will, 
under proper supervision, prepare culture media, make various cultures 
and study the morphology of bacteria in both the fresh ( living) condi- 
tion and in stained cover-glass preparations. In fact, all of the technique 
necessary for a practical working knowledge in bacteriolog}^ will be care- 
fully covered. In the winter the more important species of pathogenic 
and economic bacteria will be studied. The special methods for the bac- 
teriological analysis of milk and water, and those which are necessary 
for investigating diseases, such as tuberculosis, anthrax, glanders and 
the infectious swine and poultry' disorders will receive careful attention. 
In the spring term each student will have an opportunitj' of carrying out 
independently some investigation, thus applying bacteriological methods 
in a practical manner. The lectures in the spring term will deal with 
applied bacteriology. In this course will be considered disinfection, 
sterilization, the means by which pathogenic bacteria are disseminated^ 
protective inoculation, serum therapy in animal diseases, and other 
kindred subjects. 

For those who wish to do advanced work in either of these subjects 
excellent facilities are afforded by way of a separate room and apparatus. 
As we are constantly investigating outbreaks of infectious diseases, 
among animals in the state, an abundance of working material is 
assured. This enables the student to come into touch with actual work 
in bacteriological diagnosis. 

As is seen from the above, it is the aim of this department to drill 
the students by means of actual work in the technique necessar}- for 
them to successfully apply in their future professional duties the knowl- 
edge acquired in the study of pathology and bacteriology. To this end 
the courses of instruction have been carefully arranged, and for this 
purpose the laboratories have been equipped. 

COURSES. 

1. (general pathology. Fall term. This course is open to students 
who have had Normal. Histology and at least one year's work in Anat- 
omy and Physiology. Lectures and recitations. Two hours. T., Th., 9. 
Professor Moore. 

2. Pathology of infectious diseases. Winter term. This course is 
open to students who have taken Course i and have taken or are taking 



NEW YORK STATE VETERINARY COLLEGE 37 

Course 4. Lectures and laboratory work. Two hours. T. , 9. Professor 
Moore and Instructor Rekd. 

3. Meat Inspection. Spring term. This course is open to students 
who have taken Courses i and 2. Lectures and laborator}' work. Two 
hours. T., 9. Professor Moore and Instructor Reed. 

4. Bacteriolog5\ Lectures and laboratory work. Three hours per 
week throughout the year. INI., 9. Professor MoORE and Instructor 
Reed. 

5. Research in Patholog)^ and Bacteriology. Laboratory work with 
lectures throughout the year. Professor Moore and Instructor Reed. 
The course is designed for those preparing theses for the baccalaureate 
or advanced degrees and for those wishing to undertake original investi- 
gation in Pathology and Bacteriology. This course is open to students 
who have taken Courses i and 2 if the work is in Pathology or course 4 
if in Bacteriology, or their equivalent in some other university. Ele- 
mentary^ chemistry and a reading knowledge of French and German 
are indispensable for successful work in this course. 

GRADUATE AND RESEARCH WORK. 

The opportunities for study and investigation offered to advanced and 
graduate students in the college and in the various departments of Cornell 
University are very great. The situation of the college gives it a great 
variety as well as an abundance of material for research, and the facili- 
ties for prosecuting the work are ample. Each student, as a part of his 
last year's w^ork, must write a thesis giving the results of a personal 
investigation upon some subject in veterinary medicine. See under 
requirements for graduation, p. 20). To students preparing theses and to 
graduate students every opportunity and encouragement will be offered for 
carrying on independent investigations. (For the special courses off ering 
thesis and research work see under the various departments pp 22-37), 

THE VETERINARY LIBRARY AND OTHER LIBRARY 
FACILITIES. 

The Flower Veterinary Library. — By a gift of five thousand 
dollars ($5,000) to Cornell University for the purpose, the Honorable 
Roswell P. E/ower laid 3. broad foundation for athoroughly good working, 
veterinary library. The books and periodicals obtained with this fund 
have been considerably increased by donations from various persons and 
by books obtained from the income of the college ; the Veterinary 
Library is also largely supplemented by the University Library, and by 
loans of books and periodicals therefrom. 

The Periodical Room (PI. II) at the college is open dail}' from 7 a. m. 
till 6 p. M., and contains the leading veterinary and medical periodicals 
in English, French and German. In it are also found Foster's Encyclo- 
paedic Medical Dictionary and the Index Catalog of the Medical Library 
of the Surgeon General's Office. 



38 NEW YORK STATE VETERINARY COLLEGE 

The Veterinary Library Room (PI. II) is o})en for free consultation, 
and contains most of the books and bound periodicals belonging to the 
lil^rary or loaned to it from the University Library. Books bearing espe- 
cially upon the work of any laboratory course, are kept upon the book 
shelves of the laboratory where they are constantly accessible. 

The books and bound periodicals and transactions in the University 
Library (PI. IX) upon veterinary and human medicine, with allied sci- 
ences, exceed ten thousand (10,000) volumes ; and over 600 periodicals 
and transactions are received. Many of them pertain directly to medi- 
cine and biology. To all the University library facilities the veterinary 
students have free access in the library reading room, which is open 
daily from 8 a. ?*i. to 11 p. m. 

SEMINARY. 

The Veterinary College Seminary, which meets every two weeks, 
has for its membership: (i) All members of the instructing body ; (2) 
All students preparing theses in the college; (3) All students doing 
graduate and research work. 

The purpose of the Seminary is : (a) To discuss the methods for 
advanced and independent work, that is such work as is expected of those 
preparing theses or prosecuting any special investigation ; (b) The pre- 
sentation of the results of investigations and the progress of knowledge 
in the various departments; (c) Reports by students of the progress of 
their work. 

Naturally the members of the faculty take a leading part in (a and b) 
but as soon as the advanced work of students is well begun, the students 
present before the Seminary the results of their work. 

At each meeting, after the report, the subject is open to all the mem- 
bers of the Seminary for questions and discussion. From the experience 
of tlie last two years it is believed that the Seminar}^ is one of the most 
important parts of the college curriculum for preparing students for the 
duties and responsibilities of an honorable professional career. 

SOCIETY OF COMPARATIVE MEDICINE. 

This is a student society organized for the purpose of giving mutual 
aid in gaining general and special medical knowledge, facility in con- 
ducting the exercises of the meetings and in presenting papers and dis- 
cu.ssions in a clear and forcible manner before an audience. 

TUITION AND LABORATORY FEES. 

In the words of the law for the administration of the New York 
vState Veterinary College : "No tuition fee shall be required of a student 
l)ursuing the regular veterinary course, who, for a year or more immedi- 
ately preceding his admission to said veterinary college shall have been 
a resident of this state." 



NE JV YORK ST A TE VE TERINA R Y COL L EGE 39 

For students, not residents of New York State, the tuition is lioo 
per annum, ^^40 to be paid at the beginning of the fall, $2,^ at the begin- 
ning of the winter and 125 at the beginning of the spring term. 

Laboratory fees. — Every person taking laboratory work is required to 
pay for the material actually used. This will average approximately $2^ 
per year. 

At the end of tlie course a fee of 1^5.00 is required of each student 
receiving a degree. 

Living expenses in Ithaca var}- from 1^3.50 to |io per week. Books, 
instruments, stationer}-, etc., cost $\o and upward per year. 

THE HORACE K. WHITE PRIZES. 

These prizes, established by Horace K. White, Esq., of S3'racuse, 
are awarded annual!}- to the most meritorious students in the graduating 
class of the college. One prize of ill 5 to the first in merit ; to the second 
in merit, a prize of |io. 

POSITIONS AS DEMONSTRATORS. 

At present one or more demonstrators in Anatomy are appointed 
each year at a salary of $125.00. These positions are open to members of 
of the graduating class and to graduates of this college who have shown 
special proficiency in anatomy. 



40 NEW YORK STATE VETERINARY COLLEGE 



APPENDIX A. 



OPENINGS FOR VETERINARIANS IN AMERICA. 



I St. In the United States Cavalry and Artillery there is a demand 
for a limited number of veterinarians. 

2nd. In the Bureau of Animal Industry, U. S. Department of Agri- 
culture, a number of veterinarians are employed professionally, as live- 
stock agents and inspectors ; inspectors and superintendents of quarantine 
stations ; investigators in bacteriology and pathology, and as meat 
inspectors. (By an act of Congress the federal meat inspectors must be 
graduates of a veterinary college). 

3rd. In the different States there are appointments as State Veteri- 
narians, and in some as County or District Veterinarians, to attend to 
preventable diseases of animals. 

4th. The time is not far distant when each municipality nmst have 
its veterinary inspectors of markets, abattoirs and butcher meat, as well 
as of milk and other dairy products. 

5th. Accomplished veterinary pathologists are needed in all the 
States to serve on tuberculosis and other commissions, so that work in 
this field may be conducted intelligently and successfully on scientific 
lines. Such work on our herds can only be carried on by those specially 
trained in the anatomy, physiology, hygiene and pathology of the lower 
animals. 

6th. Educators in comparative pathology are wanted in Agricultural 
and Veterinary Colleges, and experiment stations, and must ere long be 
in demand for every Medical College which aims to keep abreast of the 
times. 

7th. There are always openings in the wide field of private veteri- 
nary practice. With a ratio of three farm animals to every human being, 
and with less than one veterinarian to every ten doctors of medicine for 
man, the balance of opportunity seems to be largely in favor of the 
veterinary practice, and this preponderance must steadily increase with 
the recovery of stock values and with the increase in numbers and 
individual value of farm animals. 



NE W } \1RK S 7 A TE VE TERINA R Y COL L EGE 4 1 

APPENDIX B. 



Legal requirements for lieense to practice veterinary medicine and 
surgery in the State of Nezu York. Extracts from article X, Ch. 860, 
lazvs of New York, iSg^. 

i 171. ''Qualifications for practice. — No person shall practice veter- 
inary medicine after Juh' one, eighteen hundred and ninety-five, unless 
previously registered and legally authorized, unless licensed by the 
Regents and registered as required by this article ; nor shall any person 
practice veterinary medicine who has ever been convicted of felony by 
any court, or whose authority to practice is suspended or revoked by the 
Regents on recommendation of a State Board. 

\ 176. Admission to examination. — The Regents shall admit to 
examination any candidate who pjiys a fee of ten dollars and submits 
satisfactory evidence, verified by oath if required, that he (first) is more 
than twenty-one years of age; (second) is of good, moral character; 
(third) has the general education required in all cases after July first, 
eighteen hundred and ninety-seven, preliminary to receiving a degree in 
veterinary medicine ; ( fourth ) has studied veterinary medicine not less 
than three full years, including three satisfactory courses, in three differ- 
ent academic years, in a veterinary medical school registered as main- 
taining at the time a satisfactory standard ; (fifth) has received a degree 
as veterinarian from some registered veterinary medical school. The 
degree in veterinary medicine shall not be conferred in this state before 
the candidate has filed with the institution conferring it, the certificate 
of the Regents that three years before the date of the degree, or before or 
during his first year of veterinary medical study in this State, he has- 
either graduated from a registered college or satisfactorily completed an 
academic course in a registered academ}^ or high school ; or has a 
preliminary education considered and accepted by the Regents as fully 
equivalent." [See pp. 8-19 for preliminary educational requirements]. 

\ 178. Exam-inations and Reports. — Examination for license shall 
be given in at least four convenient places in this State and at least four 
times annually, in accordance with the Regents' rules, and shall be exclu- 
sively in writing and in English. Each examination shall be conducted 
by a Regent examiner, who shall not be one of the veterinary medical 
examiners. At the close of each examination, the Regents' examiner in 
charge shall deliver the questions and answer papers to the board, or to its 
duly authorized committee, and such board without unnecessary delay, shall 
examine and mark the answers and transmit to the Regents an official 
report, signed by its president and secretary, stating the standing of 
each candidate in each branch, his general average, and whether the 
board recommends that a license be granted. Such report shall include 
the questions and answers and shall be filed in the public records of the 
university. If a candidate fails on his first examination, he may, after not 



42 NEIV YORK STATE VETERINARY COLLEGE 

less than six months' further study, have a second examination without 
fee. If the failure is from illness or other cause satisfactory to the 
Regents, they may waive the required six months' study. 

<J 179. Licenses. — On receiving from the State board an official report 
that an applicant has successfully passed the examination and is recom- 
mended for license, the Regents shall issue to him, if in their judgment 
he is duly qualified therefor, a license to practice veterinary medicine. 
Ever\' license shall be issued by the university under seal and shall be 
signed by each acting veterinary medical examiner of the board and by 
the officer of the university who approved the credential which admitted 
the candidate to examination, and shall state that the licensee has given 
satisfactory evidence of fitness, as to age, character, preliminary and 
veterinary medical education and all other matters required by law, and 
that after full examination he has been found properly qualified to prac- 
tice Before any license is issued it shall be numbered and 

recorded in a book kept in the Regents' office and its number shall be 
noted in the license. This record shall be open to public inspection, and 
in all legal proceedings, shall have the same weight as evidence that 
is given to a record of conveyance of land. 

I 180. Registry. — Every license to practice veterinary medicine 
shall, before the licei»see begins practice thereunder, be registered in a 
book to be known as the "veterinary "medical register," which shall be 
provided by and kept in the clerk's office of the county where such 
practice is to be carried on, with name, residence, place and date of 
birth, and source, number and date of its license to practice. Before 
registering, each licensee shall file, to be kept in a bound volume in the 
count}' clerk's office an affidavit of the above facts, and also that he is the 
person named in such license, and had, before receiving the same, com- 
plied with all requisites as to attendance, terms and amount of study and 
examination required by law and the rules of the university as prelim- 
inary to the conferment thereof, and no money was paid for such license 
except the regular fees, paid by all applicants therefor ; that no fraud, 
misrepresentation or mistake in an}^ material regard was employed b}^ 
anyone or incurred in order that such license should be conferred. 
Every license, or if lost, a copy thereof, legally certified so as to be 
admissable as evidence, or a duly attested transcript of the record of its 
confenuent, shall before registering, be exhibited to the county clerk, 
who only in case it was issued or indorsed as a license under seal by the 
Regents, shall indorse or stamp on it the date and his name preceded by 
the words : "Registered as authority to practice veterinar}- medicine, in 

the clerk's office of county." The clerk shall thereupon give to 

every veterinarian so registered a transcript of the entries in the register, 
with a certificate under seal that he has filed the prescribed affidavit. 
The licensee shall pay to the county clerk as a total a fee of one dollar 
for registration, affidavit and certificate." 



NEJV YORK STATE VETERINARY COLLEGE 



CATALOG OF STUDENTS. 

1897-1898. 



THIRD YEAR STUDENTvS. 

Dustan, A. W jNIorristown, N. J. 

Kelly, A. B Albany 

Lehrmaii, H. J Montclair, N. J. 

Moore, E. L Halifax, N. S., Canada 

Stanclift, R. J Derby 

SECOND YEAR STUDENTS. 

Fish, P. A. Ithaca 

Gay, C. W Ithaca 

Hopkins, G. S Ithaca 

Illston, H. W. Ithaca 

Kern, A. G Knoxville, Tenn. 

Mitchell, W. J Ithaca 

Perkins, C. R Hardy's 

Potter, Chas. B. Ithaca 

FIRST YEAR STUDENTS. 

Barnes, C. L Lockport 

Juliand, Louis Greene 

Reed, R. C. ' Ithaca 

Stone, G. T Binghamton 



New York State Veterinary College. 



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